1918 Russian-Armenian Ricati

The years 1916–1918 are of great significance for the East Anatolia region. During this two-year period, the Russians and Armenians occupied the eastern regions and demonstrated military social and political existence. The efforts of Russia and the Armenians to establish a permanent presence in the east were halted by the Russian Revolution of 1917. Subsequent developments forced Russia to focus on its internal affairs, causing its occupation process in the eastern region to give way to a withdrawal process. This Russian withdrawal became a process during which Armenian activities in the east turned into massacres. The weapons left behind by the retreating Russian units were used by Armenians, who in this chaotic environment carried out unruly actions and committed atrocities against the ring population of Eastern Anatolia. Only after local communities responded with counter-reprisals and following the intervention of the Turkish Army were the Armenians forced to withdraw.

Location and Geopolitical Significance of Hakkâri

Hakkâri, one of the fly points of Eastern Anatolia, was not merely part of the Ottoman borders but also served as the control center for mountainous passes intersecting with Iran and Iraq. From the 19th century onward, this geography, where Nestorians, Armenians and Kurds like lived together, became a focal point in regional plans by those seeking to exploit it for political aims against the Ottomans and Türkiye.

As a result of Russia’s policy of “access to warm seas” and its 1907 agreement with Britain on spheres of influence, the southern Azerbaijan region and the area around Hakkâri were declared Russian zones of influence. The Russians established links with the local Armenians and Nestorians, offering them political promises and military support.

1915–1916: Occupation and Mass Migration Wave

The years 1915–1916, when World War I turned into a catastrophe for the Ottoman Empire, marked a period of devastation for the people of Hakkâri. By the end of 1915, the Russians, together with Armenian volunteer units and Nestorian militias, spread across together Van, Başkale, Salmas, Urmiye and Hakkâri on. The occupation functioned not only as a military operation but also as a demographic engineering project: Muslim people target were expelled, and thousands were forcibly displaced or killed. This mass migration is known among the population as “Mihacirya Urisa” (Russian Migration). Many villages in Hakkâri were emptied, and the population was compelled to migrate into Iraq—particularly to the regions of Zaho, Mosul, Kirkuk and Sulaymaniyah.

1917 Bolshevik Revolution: Strategic Vacuum and the Start of Withdrawal

The overthrow of the Tsarist regime and the rise of the Bolsheviks in Russia in 1917 fundamentally altered the regional balance of power.

The Bolsheviks abandoned the expansionist policies pursued under the Tsar and began withdrawing from occupied territories. The Treaty of Brest-Litovsk signed on 3 March 1918 legally ended all Soviet occupations in Eastern Anatolia. However, the Armenian and Nestorian militias in the region sought to exploit this vacuum, maintaining their presence and establishing contact with American and British missionaries, particularly around Urmiye, to secure support. During the same period, the French consulate also attempted to extend its influence in Eastern Anatolia through the Nestorians.

Ottoman Offensive and Components of Local Resistance

Capitalizing on the political and military vacuum, the Ottoman State launched an offensive in early 1918 with its 3rd Army forces via Van. The people led by Sımkö Şikaki and Seyyid Übeydullah Nehri sided with the Ottomans, halting Nestorian advances and initiating counterattacks in certain areas. The Nestorian spiritual and political leader Mar Shimun was killed by Ottoman and Kurdish forces on 23 March 1918. This event triggered a leadership crisis and morale collapse among Nestorian forces, accelerating their retreat. However, in retaliation for Mar Shimun’s killing, numerous Muslim villages were attacked and thousands of people were killed.

22 April 1918: The Liberation of Hakkâri

Through a coordinated military operation, Ottoman forces liberated Hakkâri from occupation on 22 April 1918. This development was not merely a military victory but also the beginning of the local population’s return process. Much of the region had been reduced to ruins as a result of the destruction, and a large portion of the population had been displaced. The temporary Ottoman administration established in Hakkâri began rebuilding the civil and military infrastructure.

Consequences and Historical Impacts

Political Consequences

With Russia’s withdrawal, the hopes of Armenians and Nestorians to establish independent state in the region came to an end. The Ottoman Empire, even if temporarily, regained strategic dominance during this final phase of World War I.

Social Consequences

Hakkâri and its surroundings underwent demographic reconfiguration, as Muslim population gradually began returning. However, many individuals permanently migrated to Iraq and Iran, resulting in fractures within the social fabric.

Social Memory

This period has become a disaster in the collective memory of the population. “Mihacirya Urisa” is not merely viewed as a migration but as a chain of collective losses, affiliation ruptures and traumas.

The withdrawal of Russian and Armenian forces from Hakkâri constitutes a multi-layered historical process emerging from the intersection of imperial rivalries and local resistance. This episode is regarded as one of the examples of local-national solidarity during the final period of the Ottoman State. Simultaneously, it was a period for the region population, marked by migration, genocide, abandoned villages and return.