Acemhöyük is an important archaeological settlement located in Turkiye’s Central Anatolia region, approximately 18 km northwest of the province of Aksaray. The mound was settled from the Early Bronze Age onward, and during the Assyrian Trade Colonies Period, it became one of Anatolia’s political and commercial centers. Because it is situated at a strategic point along the trade routes between Mesopotamia and Anatolia, it has interacted with various civilizations.
Archaeological excavations have uncovered monumental structures such as the Sarıkaya and Hatipler Palaces. Among these structures, cuneiform tablets, seal impressions, gold objects inlaid with ivory and lapis lazuli, as well as vessels made of obsidian and rock crystal, have been found. The discovered seal impressions and written documents indicate that Acemhöyük maintained intense diplomatic and commercial relations with the Old Assyrian Kingdom and Northern Syria. The mound was severely damaged by large fires and lost its significance toward the end of the Assyrian Trade Colonies Period. Today, thanks to the excavations, Acemhöyük is considered an important center offering information about Anatolia’s prehistoric and early historical periods.
Acemhöyük (Photograph: T.C. Aksaray Governorship)
History
Acemhöyük grew into a settlement center during the Early Bronze Age. The ceramics and stone artifacts uncovered in the excavations indicate that the first settlers in the mound engaged in agriculture and animal husbandry. During this period, the region established trade relations with Mesopotamia and Syria and became an important center of economic activities such as pottery production and mining.
From the early 2000s BCE onward, Acemhöyük became one of the most important trade centers in Anatolia during the Assyrian Trade Colonies Period. During this period, merchants from Mesopotamia established trade colonies in various settlements in Anatolia and developed strong connections, especially with Kültepe (Kanesh). Since Acemhöyük was located at a strategic point along the trade routes, the palaces and local rulers maintained intensive relations with Assyrian merchants.
The cuneiform tablets and seal impressions uncovered during the excavations prove that Acemhöyük was a major administrative center during that period. The Sarıkaya and Hatipler Palaces are among the most important structures dating from the Assyrian Trade Colonies Period. The seals found in the palaces point to agreements made not only with Assyrian kings and merchants but also with merchants from Syria and Mesopotamia. It is evident that in this period, luxurious imported items were used in Acemhöyük, as shown by the acquisition of valuable artifacts such as ivory-inlaid furniture, lapis lazuli, and obsidian objects.
However, in the mid-18th century BCE, a great fire disaster significantly damaged the mound. The findings from the excavations suggest that this fire may have resulted from a war or internal conflict. Although the settlement continued for a while after the fire, Acemhöyük lost its former strength and gradually diminished in importance along the trade routes.
With the end of the Assyrian Trade Colonies Period, Acemhöyük came under Hittite domination. Although direct references to Acemhöyük are not found in Hittite texts, some architectural remnants and ceramic finds in the region indicate that the settlement continued during the Hittite period. However, during this time, Acemhöyük ceased to be a major royal center and continued to exist more as a local settlement.
In the 1200s BCE, like many great cities in Anatolia, Acemhöyük was affected by the collapse at the end of the Late Bronze Age and, with the fall of the Hittite Empire, lost its significance for a long time. Although settlement continued here during the Iron Age and subsequent periods, the mound never became a large political and economic center as it had been during the Assyrian Trade Colonies Period.
It is thought that Acemhöyük continued to exist as a small settlement during the Roman, Byzantine, and Seljuk periods. However, there is not much archaeological data from these periods. Today, the excavations shed light on the importance of the mound during the Early Bronze Age and the Assyrian Trade Colonies Period.
Excavation Works
The first scientific excavations at Acemhöyük were initiated in 1962 by Prof. Dr. Nimet Özgüç. Conducted with the support of the Turkish Historical Society and Ankara University, these excavations revealed the history of the mound and demonstrated its importance for Anatolian archaeology.
The cuneiform tablets, seal impressions, decorative objects inlaid with ivory and lapis lazuli, metal objects, and pottery found during the excavations indicate that Acemhöyük was engaged in trade relations with Mesopotamia, Assyria, and Syria. The cuneiform bullae and sealed documents discovered in the Sarıkaya Palace, in particular, have proven connections with Assyrian kings, Kargamış administrators, and the kings of Mani.
Since the 1980s, the excavations have been carried out in a more systematic manner, detailing the various structural layers of the mound. The plans of the palace structures have been drawn, and other settlement areas in the southern and northern parts of the mound have been examined.
In the 2000s, geophysical studies and stratigraphic analyses conducted at the mound revealed the existence of a large fire layer in the third structural level. This fire indicates that a major disaster occurred in the mid-18th century BCE and that the mound was partially abandoned.
Today, excavation work continues under the direction of Prof. Dr. Aliye Öztan, aiming to detail all the layers of the mound and to understand the social and economic structure during the Assyrian Trade Colonies Age. Additionally, modern archaeometric analyses, carbon-14 dating studies, and geophysical surveys have brought the excavation process to a more scientific level. Thanks to these techniques, the commercial and political connections of the mound are being evaluated in greater detail.
Architectural Structure
Located in the southeast of Acemhöyük, the Sarıkaya Palace is one of the administrative and political centers of the period, consisting of rooms arranged around a large courtyard. Its adobe walls were constructed on a stone foundation to reinforce the structure and were supported by wooden beams. It is thought that the palace, which appears to have been damaged by fire, played a critical role in state administration and trade organization. Within the palace, there are administrative sections, grain storage areas, archive rooms, and ceremonial spaces.
The Hatipler Palace, uncovered in the northern part of the mound, while similar to the Sarıkaya Palace, differed in its intended use. This area was more frequently used as a storage and trade center, and large grain silos and sealed storage rooms have been identified. The seal impressions discovered from within the palace reveal that the settlement was directly connected to the Assyrian trade network.
Rooms of Sarıkaya Palace (Photograph: Culture Portal)
During the excavations, it was determined that Acemhöyük, in addition to the palaces, also contained residential areas catering to different social classes. The houses were generally built in a rectangular plan, with courtyards and in an adjacent layout. The adobe walls of the structures were constructed on stone foundations, and in some places, ovens and kilns were found. In the workshop areas, traces of metalworking, ceramic production, and weaving activities were detected.
Large pithoi (cube-shaped storage vessels) used for storing provisions were discovered not only in the Sarıkaya and Hatipler Palaces but also in the residential areas. The sealed bullae indicate that the storage system operated within an organized administrative framework. In particular, the granaries found in the Hatipler Palace provide important evidence that the settlement functioned as a large-scale trade center.
The excavations reveal that the area surrounding the mound was enclosed by thick adobe walls and that fortifications for defensive purposes were present. This indicates that Acemhöyük was designed as a settlement that was protected against military threats. The wide courtyards, main roads, and the positioning of the structures prove that urban planning during that period was highly advanced.
Findings
Written Documents and Seals
The written documents and seals uncovered during the excavations at Acemhöyük help us understand the political, economic, and diplomatic structure of the period. The cuneiform tablets, sealed bullae, and administrative seals indicate that the settlement played a key role in trade agreements, diplomatic correspondence, and administrative operations.
The cuneiform tablets found in the mound, generally written in Old Assyrian, contain records of trade, debt contracts, goods shipments, and correspondence between merchants. Among the commercial documents are records of the purchase and sale of gold, silver, copper, tin, textile products, and agricultural goods. The complex financial system established by Assyrian merchants to manage their activities in Anatolia is understood through the debt notes, credit accounts, and documents specifying interest rates found at Acemhöyük.
Cuneiform seal (Photograph: Türk Tarih Kurumu, HÖYÜK)
Among the diplomatic documents, the correspondence between local rulers and Assyrian kings is particularly significant. Letters exchanged between kings and administrators document how alliances were formed, how trade relations were conducted, and how the political balance was shaped. Some texts indicate that Assyrian kings delegated authority to local rulers in Anatolia and cooperated with local administrations to ensure the security of trade routes.
Seals provide archaeological data as important as the cuneiform documents. The seal-impressed bullae found at Acemhöyük demonstrate the sophistication of the sealing system that conferred official status to administrative documents. Seals used by kings, administrators, and merchants were employed to authenticate documents, secure goods shipments, and record commercial transactions.
Cylinder seals impressed on a talisman-shaped bullae (Photograph: Türk Tarih Kurumu, BELLETEN)
Ceramic and Pottery Products
Excavations have yielded significant findings related to the region’s ceramic and pottery activities. Ceramic production is an important indicator in understanding the cultural and economic structure of the settlement.
Ceramics dated to the Early Bronze Age consist of red-ware pottery with clay slip influenced by Western Anatolia and wheel-made vessels. The simple ceramics that emerged during this period were generally produced from well-refined clays in shades of cream or reddish cream. The proliferation of wheel-made ceramics demonstrates that Acemhöyük adapted to the technological innovations of the period. In particular, the presence of ceramics with forms of Western Anatolian origin indicates that strong cultural and commercial ties were established with that region.
During the Assyrian Trade Colonies Period, ceramic production became more advanced. Ceramics from this period feature red-ware pottery produced with fine craftsmanship and vessels decorated with geometric patterns. In addition, among the ceramics used in this era are large cubes and sealed vessels that were used for transporting commercial goods.
Early Bronze Age ceramics (Photograph: Tu Türk Tarih Kurumu, BELLETEN)
Metal Objects and Weapons
The excavations at Acemhöyük have revealed the existence of a developed tradition of metalworking within the settlement. The metal objects and weapons found in the mound provide important information about the artistic production, economic structure, and military power of the period. Objects made of copper, bronze, and iron resulted from the processing of raw materials supplied via trade routes. The metal finds, which are categorized into weapons, everyday items, and decorative objects, prove that the region was a center of advanced metallurgy.
Among the weapons uncovered during the excavations are bronze daggers, arrowheads, spearheads, axes, and pieces of armor. These weapons help us understand the military organization and defense systems in the region. The daggers, generally shaped using forging techniques, often exhibit decorations and reliefs. Spearheads and arrowheads, used in warfare and hunting, are particularly notable for their sharp bronze tips, making them effective weapons.
In addition to weapons, decorative objects and metal items for everyday use have also been found at Acemhöyük. Needles, bracelets, necklaces, and brooches made of copper and bronze demonstrate the intricate details of metalworking during the period. The presence of gold and silver decorative objects indicates that the elite class of the settlement possessed luxury items.
Consumption Products
The excavations at Acemhöyük have revealed that the settlement was not only a center of trade and administration but also an important cultural and economic hub where luxury consumption products were present. The valuable items uncovered indicate that the ruling class and elite layers used prestigious objects. Among these products are gold and silver decorative items, ivory-inlaid furniture, objects made of lapis lazuli and obsidian, accessories made of precious stones, and exotic imported goods.
The ivory-inlaid pieces of furniture found during the excavations confirm that Acemhöyük was a center furnished with luxury items. The ivory inlays, found especially in the palace structures, have most likely been evaluated as parts of special furniture belonging to the administrators. Some of these inlays feature geometric patterns and animal figures. The similarity of the ivory craftsmanship to examples from Mesopotamia and Egypt suggests that such materials were brought into the region through trade and might have been processed locally.
Beads and seals made from lapis lazuli indicate that valuable stones imported from Mesopotamia and Afghanistan were used here. Obsidian vessels were used both for ceremonial purposes and for everyday luxury consumption. Bowls and vessels made of rock crystal and semi-precious stones are also among the prestigious objects found at the mound.
Jwelry made of gold and silver demonstrates that Acemhöyük possessed advanced metalworking skills. The excavations uncovered gold bracelets, necklaces, signet rings, and earrings, with the craftsmanship on these pieces being highly detailed and aesthetically carefully executed.
