Andragogy is a subfield of educational science that examines the learning processes of adult individuals and aims to develop teaching methods suitable for their cognitive, emotional, and social characteristics. The term derives from the Ancient Greek words aner (adult man/human) and agogos (guide, leader), literally meaning “the education of adults” or “guidance for adults.” Conceptually, it refers to an educational approach that guides adults in acquiring knowledge and skills through self-directed learning, internal motivation, and personal life experiences.

Andragogy differs from pedagogy not merely by the age of the learner but also in learning styles, sources of motivation, learning goals, and the nature of the educator–learner relationship. This discipline aligns with contemporary educational principles such as lifelong learning, self-regulation, and problem-based learning. Adult education supports individuals in becoming active learners in various fields such as professional life, personal development, social participation, and citizenship education.

Historical Background

The term andragogy was first introduced in 1833 by the German educator Alexander Kapp, who, while interpreting Plato’s Republic and Laws, argued that adult education should be based on distinct theoretical foundations, separate from those of children. However, the concept did not develop into a systematic theory until the 20th century.

The founder of the andragogical literature, Malcolm Shepherd Knowles (1913–1997), asserted from the 1970s onward that adult learning fundamentally differs from pedagogy. He developed the learning model known as the andragogical model and systematized it in his 1970 work, The Modern Practice of Adult Education: From Pedagogy to Andragogy.

Applications of Andragogy in Türkiye

In Türkiye, practices based on andragogical principles are implemented across a wide range of public institutions and local service providers. The courses offered by İSMEK (Istanbul Metropolitan Municipality Art and Vocational Training Courses) provide flexible learning opportunities for adults both online and face-to-face, supporting learner-centered education.

Additionally, the General Directorate of Lifelong Learning under the Ministry of National Education (MoNE) operates Public Education Centers and Open Education Schools, facilitating access to adult learning through the e-Yaygın digital platform.

Moreover, Law No. 6331 on Occupational Health and Safety mandates employee training within workplaces, institutionalizing adult education in professional environments. These examples illustrate how andragogy is practiced in Türkiye both at individual and institutional levels.

Core Principles

Malcolm Knowles proposed that adult learning is shaped by the following core principles:

• Autonomy: Adults desire independence in the learning process. They prefer to set their own goals, control the pace, and assume responsibility for their learning.
• Experience-Based Learning: Adults view their life experiences as the foundation of learning, and educational processes should integrate these experiences.
• Readiness to Learn: Adults are motivated to learn in order to adapt to life changes, assume new roles, or solve problems.
• Problem Orientation: Adults favor learning that focuses on real problems rather than abstract subjects; they expect practical applications.
• Intrinsic Motivation: Internal drives such as achievement, personal fulfillment, growth, and meaning are more influential than external rewards.
• Relevance to Life: Adult education should address current, real-life issues and connect learning to tangible contexts.
• Social Dimension of Learning: Adult learning is both individual and social; group work, discussion, and collaboration enhance learning.
• Need-Based Planning: Adults usually learn for specific purposes, so content should be planned flexibly according to learners’ needs.

Differences Between Pedagogy and Andragogy

The main distinction between pedagogy and andragogy lies in the learner’s developmental characteristics, cognitive, affective, and experiential, as well as their corresponding educational needs. Pedagogy concerns the education of children, while andragogy focuses on adult learning processes. The differences extend beyond age, encompassing motivation, responsibility for learning, the role of experience, and approaches to instruction.

In the pedagogical model, learners may not yet possess intrinsic motivation; thus, the teacher assumes a directive or authoritative role. The student is generally a passive recipient, and the learning process follows the teacher’s structured plan. Since children have limited experience, knowledge transfer tends to be external and theoretical.

Conversely, andragogy centers on the learner’s life experiences. Adults often engage in learning for specific, personally meaningful reasons. They assume an active, responsible, and participatory role, while the educator functions as a facilitator or guide. Adult education is most effective when linked to real-life problems. The experiences and knowledge adults bring to the process enrich and direct learning.

In summary, pedagogy represents a teacher-centered, structured, and directive system, whereas andragogy emphasizes a learner-centered, flexible, and experience-based approach. These fundamental distinctions shape educational programs, teaching techniques, and assessment practices in both models.

Fields of Application

Andragogical methods are applied across multiple educational and sectoral domains:

• Public Education Centers: Adult literacy, sewing, language, and computer courses.
• Vocational and Technical Education: Apprenticeship programs, second-career planning.
• In-Service Training: Administrative, communication, and leadership programs in public institutions.
• Corporate Training: Professional development seminars in the private sector.
• Open and Distance Education: Diploma or certification programs for working adults.
• E-Learning and Mobile Learning Platforms: Individual learning via YouTube, Coursera, Khan Academy, etc.
• NGO and Local Government Projects: Programs on women’s economic participation or agricultural training.
• University Continuing Education Centers (CECs): Certificate and personal development programs.

Example:

When nurses in a public hospital receive online training modules about updated medical protocols, or when farmers in a rural area attend hands-on workshops about local farming techniques and fertilizer use, these are direct examples of andragogical learning in practice.

Criticisms

The concept of andragogy has been met with several academic and cultural critiques:

• Western-Centrism and Individualism: The andragogical model emphasizes individual learning, which may not align with collectivist cultures (e.g., Türkiye, Japan) where learning occurs within community settings and teacher authority is valued.
• Age-Based Distinctions: Drawing strict age boundaries between pedagogy and andragogy may be artificial. Adolescents and university students may display characteristics of both models; thus, education should consider the learner’s bio-psycho-social developmental level.
• Implementation Challenges: Many adult educators are trained in pedagogical frameworks, lacking skills in andragogical design, material development, and facilitation. Limited time, resources, and infrastructure can also hinder the application.

Lack of Critical Theory: Critics such as Brookfield (2005) argue that andragogy focuses too heavily on individual learning, overlooking issues like social justice, class inequality, and transformative education. Incorporating perspectives from critical pedagogy is therefore recommended.

Related Concepts

• Lifelong Learning
• Adult Education
• Self-Regulated Learning
• Action Research
• Critical Pedagogy
• Blended Learning
• Cognitive Development Theories

Andragogy offers a comprehensive approach to understanding adult learning processes across psychological, social, and cognitive dimensions. By emphasizing personal responsibility, intrinsic motivation, and experiential learning, it has become increasingly relevant in today’s rapidly changing knowledge landscape. Modern educational paradigms, both in Türkiye and globally, recognize that learning is not limited to childhood, underscoring the importance of applying andragogical principles more widely.