Argania spinosa (L.) Skeels is a long-lived tree species belonging to the Sapotaceae family, endemic to the southwestern region of Morocco. This tree plays a vital role in maintaining the ecological balance of the area and holds significant economic and social value. Argan oil, extracted from the seeds of the argan tree, has been traditionally utilized for centuries by local populations both as a food source and for medicinal and cosmetic purposes. In recent years, the growing scientific interest in argan oil has facilitated comprehensive studies regarding its chemical composition, biological activities, and potential health benefits.

Beyond its traditional uses, modern scientific research has demonstrated that argan oil possesses various pharmacological properties, including antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, cardioprotective, and hypocholesterolemic effects. These biological activities are attributed to its high content of bioactive compounds such as unsaturated fatty acids, tocopherols, sterols, and polyphenols. Moreover, the beneficial effects of argan oil on skin health have made it a popular ingredient in the cosmetics industry.

However, the increasing commercial value and global demand for argan oil have also raised concerns regarding its purity and quality. Therefore, the standardization of production methods, the development of quality control procedures, and scientific efforts to prevent adulteration have gained importance.

Botanical Characteristics and Ecological Role

Argania spinosa (L.) Skeels is the sole species of the Sapotaceae family and grows naturally in an area of approximately 800,000 hectares in southwestern Morocco. This plant has a high capacity for adaptation to arid and semi-arid climatic conditions and plays a critical role in soil stabilization, particularly in combating erosion. Its deep root system enables it to access groundwater sources and contributes to the regional water balance. Due to these attributes, Argania spinosa holds critical importance in terms of environmental sustainability.

The argan tree typically has a lifespan ranging from 150 to 200 years and bears fruit at specific times of the year. Its fruit consists of an outer shell resembling an olive, a woody kernel, and within the kernel, one to three seeds that resemble almonds. These seeds are the primary raw material used in argan oil production. On average, an argan tree yields approximately 8 kilograms of fruit per year, which can produce around one liter of argan oil.

Designated as a biosphere reserve by UNESCO in 1998, the Argan Forests possess great ecological as well as socio-economic significance for the local population. The conservation and sustainable use of the argan tree are supported by production models developed through women’s cooperatives. These cooperatives not only preserve traditional knowledge and techniques in argan oil production but also contribute to social development by enhancing the economic independence of women in the region.

From an ecosystem perspective, Argania spinosa forests aid in preserving biodiversity, although they are increasingly threatened by human activities and climate change. Therefore, national and international projects aimed at the sustainable management of the argan tree and the conservation of biodiversity are of paramount importance for the long-term protection of this species.

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Extraction Methods of Argan Oil

Argan oil is obtained from the seeds found within the fruit of the Argania spinosa tree. The quality of the oil is directly dependent on the methods employed during the production process. There are significant differences between traditional and modern techniques in terms of processing, efficiency, quality, and hygiene standards. Consequently, the chemical composition and potential applications of argan oil may vary according to the extraction method used.

Traditional Methods

The traditional production of argan oil is primarily practiced in rural areas of Morocco, particularly within women’s cooperatives. The process begins with the collection of ripe fruits, which are then naturally dried. Once dried, the outer shells of the fruits are manually removed, and the hard kernels inside are cracked open with stones to release the seeds. These seeds are traditionally roasted, then ground using stone mills into a paste. The paste is kneaded by hand with the addition of water to separate the oil. The oil obtained through this method is typically used for culinary purposes and is characterized by its distinct aroma and golden-yellow color. However, the process is highly time-consuming and subject to limited hygiene controls. On average, this method requires approximately 10 to 12 hours to produce around one liter of oil.

Mechanical Pressing Methods

Mechanical pressing, widely used in modern production facilities, offers a more hygienic, efficient, and controlled process compared to traditional techniques. Unroasted seeds are generally processed using cold pressing methods, which are particularly preferred for the production of cosmetic-grade argan oil. During cold pressing, the temperature is maintained below 50°C, helping to preserve the nutritional value and biological activity of the oil. Mechanical pressing yields a higher extraction efficiency than traditional methods and enables product standardization.

Solvent Extraction

Another method employed on an industrial scale is solvent extraction. In this process, the seeds are treated with organic solvents such as hexane or petroleum ether. Argan oil obtained through solvent extraction is typically utilized in the cosmetic and pharmaceutical industries. Despite its high yield, the risk of residual solvents and potential alterations in the oil’s organoleptic properties limit its use in food production.

Supercritical Fluid Extraction

Supercritical fluid extraction, a next-generation method, commonly utilizes supercritical carbon dioxide (CO₂). This environmentally friendly technique eliminates the use of solvents and preserves the purity and biological efficacy of the product to the greatest extent possible. Moreover, the precise control of processing parameters allows for the selective extraction of desired compounds. However, the high cost and technological requirements restrict its widespread application.

Types of Argan Oil Obtained

Different types of argan oil are produced depending on the extraction methods employed:

• Culinary Argan Oil: Extracted from roasted seeds through traditional or mechanical pressing methods.
• Cosmetic Argan Oil: Produced from unroasted seeds using cold pressing or solvent extraction techniques.
• Enriched Argan Oil: Products in which the unsaponifiable fractions of the oil are increased, and bioactive compounds are concentrated. These oils are typically used in dermocosmetic applications.

Each method utilized in the production of argan oil directly affects its quality, compositional profile, and potential areas of application. Therefore, accurately identifying the extraction method and transparently indicating this information on product labeling are crucial for consumer safety and adherence to quality standards.

Chemical Composition of Argan Oil

Argan oil is considered a valuable natural resource in both nutrition and cosmetics due to its rich and complex chemical composition. The chemical profile of the oil primarily consists of fatty acids and unsaponifiable components. These constituents form the basis of the biological activities and health effects associated with argan oil.

Fatty Acids

Approximately 99% of argan oil consists of fatty acids in the form of triglycerides. These fatty acids are composed of both unsaturated and saturated varieties.

• Oleic Acid (C18:1): Oleic acid is the predominant fatty acid in argan oil, accounting for approximately 43–49% of the total fatty acid content. As a monounsaturated fatty acid, oleic acid is known for its beneficial effects on human health.
• Linoleic Acid (C18:2): A polyunsaturated fatty acid, linoleic acid is present in argan oil at levels ranging between 29–36%. Belonging to the omega-6 group, this essential fatty acid plays a crucial role in maintaining the integrity of cell membranes.
• Saturated fatty acids such as Palmitic Acid (C16:0) and Stearic Acid (C18:0) are found in lower proportions, generally below 12%.

In addition, trace amounts of other fatty acids, including linolenic acid, arachidic acid, behenic acid, and myristic acid, have been identified in argan oil.

Unsaponifiable Components

Although the unsaponifiable fraction of argan oil constitutes less than 1% of its total composition, it is highly significant due to its biological activities. This group includes various bioactive compounds such as sterols, tocopherols, triterpene alcohols, squalene, and polyphenols.

Sterols

Sterols are one of the characteristic components of the unsaponifiable fraction of argan oil.

• Spinasterol and Schottenol are the most abundant sterols, representing approximately 80% of the total sterol content in argan oil.
• Other sterols such as Campesterol, Stigmasterol, and β-Sitosterol are also present in lower concentrations. Sterols are recognized for their anti-inflammatory and hypocholesterolemic properties and are considered important biomarkers in the purity analysis of argan oil.

Triterpene Alcohols

Argan oil contains triterpene alcohols such as β-Amyrin, Tirucallol, and Lupeol. These compounds are utilized in dermocosmetic formulations due to their anti-inflammatory and wound-healing properties.

Tocopherols (Vitamin E)

Argan oil is particularly rich in γ-Tocopherol.

• The total tocopherol content ranges between 629–660 mg/kg, with γ-Tocopherol constituting approximately 70–80% of the total.
• α-Tocopherol and δ-Tocopherol are also present in smaller amounts.

Due to their potent antioxidant properties, tocopherols enhance the oxidative stability of argan oil and extend its shelf life.

Squalene

Squalene is present in argan oil at a concentration of approximately 0.3%. It is known for its moisturizing and skin-regenerating properties, as well as its protective effects against free radicals.

Polyphenols and Phenolic Compounds

Argan oil contains a variety of phenolic compounds. Among these are Vanillic Acid, Ferulic Acid, Caffeic Acid, and Sinapic Acid, all of which exhibit antioxidant effects.

Polyphenols contribute to the antioxidant capacity of argan oil and provide protective effects against UV-B radiation.

Carotenoids

The carotenoids present in argan oil are primarily represented by xanthophylls. These pigments play a role in supporting skin health and preventing damage caused by free radicals.

Quality Control Criteria and Purity Assessment of Argan Oil

The increasing commercial value and global demand for argan oil have heightened the importance of quality control procedures and authenticity analyses. Determining high-quality and pure argan oil is not only critical for consumer safety but also essential for preserving the product’s commercial value. The quality parameters of argan oil are evaluated based on physicochemical properties, compositional analyses, and adulteration detection methods.

Physicochemical Quality Parameters

The quality classification of argan oil is generally based on fundamental physicochemical characteristics, such as free fatty acid content, peroxide value, and specific extinction coefficients.

• Free Fatty Acid (FFA) Content: The acidity level of argan oil provides information about its freshness and degree of oxidation. In extra virgin argan oil, this value should be below 0.8%. According to food standards, oils with an acidity below 1.5% are classified as pure, while those above 2.5% are considered lampante grade and are unsuitable for direct consumption.
• Peroxide Value (PV): This parameter indicates the oxidative stability and degradation level of the oil. A low peroxide value (<15 meq O₂/kg) signifies that the oil is fresh and has not undergone significant oxidation.
• Specific Extinction Coefficients (K232 and K270): These are UV spectrophotometric measurements that reflect the extent of oxidative deterioration. Lower values indicate fresher and higher-quality oil.

Authenticity and Purity Markers

The unique compositional profile of argan oil is used to verify its purity and authenticity. Compositional analyses are particularly employed to prevent adulteration with other oils, such as olive oil, sunflower oil, or soybean oil.

• Sterol Profile: The sterol content of argan oil differs from other vegetable oils. Spinasterol and Schottenol are predominant, comprising approximately 75–80% of the total sterol content in argan oil. The campesterol level should not exceed 0.4%; higher levels may indicate adulteration with oils such as sunflower or soybean oil.
• Tocopherols: The γ-tocopherol concentration is particularly significant in the tocopherol profile. The γ/α-tocopherol ratio is generally higher in pure argan oil, making it a useful indicator in adulteration detection. Elevated levels of α-tocopherol may suggest the presence of olive oil or other oils.
• Fatty Acid Composition: The fatty acid profile of argan oil is distinct from other vegetable oils. The specific ratios of oleic and linoleic acids are key indicators in authenticity analyses. A high linolenic acid content may indicate adulteration with flaxseed or canola oils.
• Triglyceride Profile and Unsaponifiable Matter Analysis: The triglyceride profile plays an important role in determining the characteristic structure of argan oil. The quantity and composition of the unsaponifiable fraction should fall within specific limits for argan oil; exceeding these limits may be a sign of adulteration.

Methods Developed for Adulteration Detection

Advanced analytical methods play a crucial role in the quality control and adulteration detection of argan oil.

• HPLC-CUPRAC Method: By measuring tocopherols and antioxidant capacities, this method can detect adulteration levels of 5% and above.
• Chemometric Methods (e.g., PLS-DA): These multivariate statistical techniques are used in data analysis and provide high accuracy in distinguishing different types of oils.
• Gas Chromatography (GC) and Mass Spectrometry (MS): These techniques allow for detailed analysis of fatty acids, sterols, and triterpene alcohols.

International Standards and Regulations

The NM 08.5.090 standard, published by the Moroccan Institute for Standardization (IMANOR), establishes the quality criteria and classifications for argan oil. This standard defines the threshold values for the chemical, physical, and organoleptic properties of argan oil. Additionally, supplementary regulations and certification processes are applied for products intended for marketing in the European Union and international markets.

Biological Activities and Pharmacological Effects of Argan Oil

Argan oil, owing to its rich biochemical composition, possesses a wide spectrum of biological activities. It has been traditionally and contemporarily utilized in both internal and topical applications for the prevention and treatment of various disorders. In vitro and in vivo studies support the potential pharmacological effects of argan oil, validating its use as a functional food ingredient and a component in dermocosmetic formulations.

Antioxidant Activity

Argan oil exhibits strong antioxidant capacity due to its high content of tocopherols (particularly γ-tocopherol), polyphenols, and squalene. These compounds neutralize reactive oxygen species (ROS), thereby reducing oxidative stress at the cellular level.

Studies have demonstrated that argan oil reduces mitochondrial and cytosolic oxidative stress by regulating NADPH production in acrylamide-induced oxidative stress models. Additionally, it limits free radical production and prevents lipid peroxidation.

Anti-inflammatory Properties

Argan oil has been shown to exert anti-inflammatory effects, particularly in carrageenan-induced edema models. When administered orally, argan oil obtained through mechanical pressing reduces the release of inflammatory mediators (prostaglandins and cytokines), thereby eliciting an anti-inflammatory response. This effect is attributed to the presence of triterpene alcohols and sterols.

Cardioprotective and Hypocholesterolemic Effects

Experimental studies in diabetic and hypertensive models have demonstrated the beneficial effects of argan oil on the cardiovascular system. It has been reported to:

• Reduce serum total cholesterol, low-density lipoprotein (LDL), and triglyceride levels.
• Increase high-density lipoprotein (HDL) levels.
• Decrease the formation of atherosclerotic plaques and the development of oxidatively modified LDL.

These effects are primarily attributed to oleic and linoleic acids, as well as the regulatory effects of phenolic compounds and squalene on lipid metabolism.

Neuroprotective Effects

In pilocarpine-induced epilepsy models, argan oil has been found to reduce seizure frequency and severity while enhancing antioxidant defense systems in the hippocampus following seizures. There is also evidence indicating its protective effects against age-related cognitive decline.

Antidiabetic Effects

The antidiabetic effects of argan oil are associated with its hypoglycemic activity. Oral glucose tolerance tests have shown that argan oil lowers blood glucose levels and reduces jejunal glucose absorption. These effects are supported by its ability to enhance insulin sensitivity and regulate glucose metabolism.

Antimicrobial Effects

Argan oil demonstrates antimicrobial activity against both Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria. It has been found to be effective against pathogens such as Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli, Cutibacterium acnes, and Mycobacterium tuberculosis. This antimicrobial activity is attributed to the phenolic compounds and phytosterols present in the oil.

Cytotoxic and Antiproliferative Effects

Argan oil has exhibited antiproliferative effects in various cancer cell lines. Sterols and polyphenols isolated from argan oil have been shown to inhibit cell proliferation and induce apoptosis in prostate cancer cell lines. Additionally, in T-cell acute lymphoblastic leukemia cell lines, it has been demonstrated to suppress the Notch1 and ERK1/2 signaling pathways.

Dermatological Effects and Contributions to Skin Health

The widespread use of argan oil in the dermocosmetic field is primarily due to its ability to enhance skin elasticity and provide moisturization. Clinical studies conducted on postmenopausal women have shown that both oral and topical administration of argan oil increases skin elasticity and reduces transepidermal water loss. Furthermore, argan oil has been reported to inhibit melanin biosynthesis, providing skin tone evening and anti-spot effects, as well as reducing hair protein loss and accelerating wound healing.

These multifaceted biological activities render argan oil a valuable ingredient in functional food and dermocosmetic products. However, potential allergic reactions and adverse effects should be considered, and further clinical and safety studies are warranted.

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Cosmetic and Dermocosmetic Applications of Argan Oil

Argan oil, due to its rich content of bioactive compounds, has a wide range of applications in cosmetic and dermocosmetic products. It is particularly favored in formulations for skin health, hair care, and anti-aging products, and is utilized in both traditional and modern preparations in its pure or enriched forms. Its combination with advanced carrier systems enhances its bioavailability and renders its effects more pronounced.

Effects on Skin Health and Moisturization

Thanks to its high content of oleic and linoleic acids, argan oil strengthens the skin's natural lipid barrier and reduces transepidermal water loss. These properties help maintain the skin's moisture balance and increase its elasticity. Studies have demonstrated that both topical and oral administration of argan oil improve skin elasticity and increase epidermal water content.

Anti-aging and Elasticity-enhancing Properties

Argan oil reduces cellular damage caused by free radicals through its tocopherols and polyphenols. These effects establish a protective barrier against photoaging and prevent collagen degradation, thereby reducing the formation of wrinkles. In addition, it supports collagen and elastin synthesis, enhancing skin firmness and elasticity.

Effects on Hair Health and Repair

Argan oil is an effective component for maintaining and repairing hair health. It helps to maintain the moisture balance of the scalp, reduces dandruff, and increases the elasticity of hair fibers. It has been shown to prevent protein loss, particularly in hair exposed to chemical treatments or heat. These properties contribute to the strengthening of hair strands and the reduction of breakage.

Wound Healing and Anti-inflammatory Effects

Argan oil exhibits beneficial effects in wound healing processes. It has been reported that topical application prevents the development of inflammation in wound areas and accelerates the healing process. Furthermore, liposomal formulations modified with argan oil have been shown to reduce cellular oxidative stress, supporting cell regeneration and wound closure.

Use in Formulations and Carrier Systems

In modern cosmetic formulations, argan oil is frequently combined with liposomes and other nanotechnological carrier systems. These systems facilitate the penetration of argan oil into the skin and enhance its efficacy. Liposomal preparations containing argan oil in combination with allantoin have shown positive outcomes in the treatment of skin ulcers and hypertrophic scars by increasing dermal penetration.

Potential Allergic Reactions and Side Effects

Although argan oil is generally well tolerated, it has been reported to cause allergic reactions in some cases. Observed reactions include contact dermatitis, erythema, and edema, particularly in the periocular area. There have also been documented cases where exposure to argan oil has led to respiratory allergies and anaphylactic reactions in certain individuals. Therefore, careful attention should be paid during product development and application processes, and dermatological testing is recommended prior to use in sensitive individuals.

Culinary Use of Argan Oil and Its Nutritional Impacts

Argan oil has been traditionally utilized as a valuable nutritional resource in Moroccan cuisine for centuries. It is commonly consumed directly at breakfast or incorporated into traditional dishes, sauces, and salads by the local population. Due to its distinctive flavor profile and nutritional composition, argan oil is considered a functional food. Its richness in unsaturated fatty acids, phenolic compounds, and phytosterols provides beneficial effects on human health.

Effects on Cardiovascular Health

Argan oil, being rich in oleic and linoleic acids, positively influences lipid metabolism. Regular consumption may:

• Reduce serum total cholesterol and low-density lipoprotein (LDL) levels.
• Increase high-density lipoprotein (HDL) levels, thereby reducing the risk of atherosclerosis.

These characteristics make argan oil a supportive element in the prevention of hypercholesterolemia and cardiovascular diseases.

Antioxidant and Anti-inflammatory Effects

The high content of γ-tocopherol and polyphenols in argan oil confers potent antioxidant properties. Regular intake can reduce oxidative stress caused by free radicals, thereby preventing cellular damage. Additionally, by modulating inflammatory responses, it may lower the risk of chronic inflammation-related diseases. These properties offer potential benefits in preventing metabolic syndrome, diabetes, and various chronic disorders.

Antidiabetic Effects

Argan oil has also been traditionally employed in the treatment of diabetes. Experimental studies have demonstrated that argan oil reduces glucose absorption and enhances insulin sensitivity. Oral intake has been reported to improve glycemic control and prevent postprandial hyperglycemia. Consequently, it is considered a supportive factor in managing insulin resistance in patients with type 2 diabetes.

Digestive and Hepatoprotective Effects

Argan oil has been reported to exhibit choleretic effects by stimulating bile production, thereby facilitating fat digestion and supporting liver function. Its antioxidant capacity has been shown in experimental studies to protect hepatocytes against oxidative damage.

Nutritional Value and Consumption Recommendations

Argan oil is an energy-dense oil due to its caloric content. Its high proportion of unsaturated fatty acids places it among the preferred healthy dietary oils.

• A daily intake of 15-25 mL is suggested to exert favorable effects on lipid profiles.
• Traditionally, it is consumed at breakfast, mixed with honey or almond paste. It is also recommended for use in salads and dishes that do not require cooking.
• Due to its heat-sensitive components, argan oil should not be used in high-temperature cooking methods such as frying. As a result of its nutritional and functional properties, argan oil holds a valuable position in the food industry. However, for nutritional purposes, it is essential to prefer authentic and pure products that comply with quality control procedures to ensure human health.

Adverse Effects and Safety Assessment

Argan oil is generally recognized as safe based on its traditional and modern applications. Nevertheless, its expanded areas of use and increased consumption in recent years necessitate careful evaluation of potential side effects and allergic reactions. The possible risks associated with both internal and external use of argan oil are documented by current scientific studies and case reports.

Allergic Reactions

Cases of contact dermatitis have been reported, particularly in sensitive individuals, as a result of external use of argan oil. These reactions usually occur after direct skin contact and manifest as erythema, edema, and itching, especially around the periocular area.

In some cases, positive skin prick test reactions have been detected following the use of cosmetic products containing argan oil. These reactions are thought to be associated with oleic and linoleic acids, or potential protein residues present in the oil.

Respiratory and Systemic Allergic Responses

In rare cases, systemic allergic reactions have been reported following the inhalation or oral consumption of argan oil. Observed symptoms include rhinitis, conjunctivitis, abdominal pain, hypersalivation, and anaphylactic reactions. Occupational asthma and rhinitis have also been documented in workers exposed to argan oil or its particulates. These reactions are believed to be due to sensitization to argan dust and the protein fractions of the oil.

Toxicological Data

The existing literature provides limited data regarding the toxic effects of argan oil. While no significant toxicity has been reported in traditional usage, systematic studies on high-dose oral intake or long-term use are lacking. Therefore, further scientific research is required to assess long-term safety comprehensively.

Recommendations for Safe Use

For external applications of argan oil, it is recommended that individuals with sensitive skin perform a patch test on a small area prior to use. Those with a history of allergies should consult a dermatologist.

For dietary use, it is essential to select argan oil obtained from reliable sources, produced according to quality standards, and processed through cold-press methods. Additionally, exceeding the recommended daily intake should be avoided to prevent potential gastrointestinal discomfort and metabolic side effects.