Brutalist architecture emerged after World War II and exerted global influence between the 1950s and 1970s. The movement derives its name from the French expression béton brut (raw concrete)^【1】  and is defined by the direct use of raw, uncoated, and inexpensive materials, most notably concrete.

In Brutalist structures, functions are exposed, the structural system is made visible, and the natural texture of the material is accepted as an aesthetic value. This approach, combined with economic necessities and the need for rapid construction, was widely applied in public buildings, university campuses, housing estates, and administrative complexes.

^{Geisel Library, USA (Unsplash)}

History

Throughout the 19th century, the transition from an agrarian to an industrial society, the radical transformation of social classes, and the rapid penetration of technology into daily life all encouraged the search for a new architecture independent of historical styles. By the mid-20th century, this aspiration converged with the urgent needs of cities devastated by war, giving rise to Brutalism.

Due to its affordability, availability, and ease of use, concrete became the most essential building material of the postwar era. In 1950s England, projects by Alison and Peter Smithson introduced the term “New Brutalism” into the architectural lexicon. Reyner Banham’s 1955 article in The Architectural Review and his 1966 book The New Brutalism: Ethic or Aesthetic? provided the theoretical framework of the movement. Banham’s three guiding principles—“memorability as an image,” “clear exhibition of structure,” and “valuation of materials as found”—became influential reference points for later practices.

Between the 1950s and 1970s, Brutalism gained visibility across Europe and the United States through university campuses, public institutions, and mass housing projects. Notable examples include Park Hill Estate and Trellick Tower in England, the Basel School of Art and Design in Switzerland, Boston City Hall in the United States, Centre Georges Pompidou in France, and the Nakagin Capsule Tower in Japan. In Eastern Europe, particularly in Yugoslavia, state-sponsored housing estates and public facilities adopted Brutalist principles on a large scale.

From the 1960s onward, Brutalist architecture also appeared in Islamic countries. Examples include the Hotel du Lac in Tunisia, the Ferdowsi Museum and the Tehran Museum of Contemporary Art in Iran, housing projects by Yasmeen Lari in Pakistan, and university buildings in Morocco. Türkiye too, produced significant examples. The Middle East Technical University (METU) campus, designed by Behruz and Altuğ Çinici in 1956, combined Brutalist methods with modernist principles and local architectural references. The Faculty of Architecture, in particular, is regarded as one of the leading Brutalist works in Türkiye with exposed formwork traces, visible functions, courtyard organization, and horizontal megastructure design. Around the same period, structures such as Etimesgut Mosque, Istanbul Advertising Complex, Stad Hotel, and various public buildings also reflected Brutalist aesthetics.

By the 1980s, the movement came under criticism for its monumental scale, austere aesthetics, and detachment from the human scale. Some architects shifted toward softer, more rounded forms, while many Brutalist buildings were altered or demolished.

Key Features

Brutalist architecture exhibits a set of distinctive characteristics on both formal and theoretical levels. Emerging from the intersection of postwar economic necessities and modernist principles, its defining features include:

• Material honesty: Concrete above all, but also steel, stone, and glass, are presented in their raw form without cladding. Formwork traces, joints, and casting marks are left visible, with construction processes themselves considered aesthetic elements.

• Expression of structure: Structural systems, service towers, staircases, and circulation elements are openly displayed, ensuring functional legibility.

• Massiveness and monumentality: Buildings are often designed at monumental scales, with repetitive simple geometries that create strong public images.

• Memorability: Forms are designed to be quickly recognizable and to endure as symbols within urban memory.

• Functional expression: Different programmatic components are articulated on the façade, sometimes exaggerated for emphasis.

• Courtyards and communal spaces: Large complexes often integrate courtyards and linear public areas such as “allee” or “street-deck” systems to encourage social interaction.

• Economy and practicality: The movement developed from the urgent need to construct quickly and inexpensively in the postwar period. Concrete’s low cost and availability made it the driving force of this approach.

• Simplicity and austerity in aesthetics: Decorative elements are avoided in favor of direct geometries and exposed functional components. The idea of the “apotheosis of ordinariness” elevates everyday materials and solutions to aesthetic significance.

Notable Works

Europe and America

• Basel School of Art and Design (Switzerland, 1961 – Baur, Baur, Bräuning, Durig): Known for its origami-like concrete surfaces and interplay with light.

• Orange County Courthouse (New York, 1967 – Paul Rudolph): Composed of three concrete pavilions, notable for its interior lighting.

• Trellick Tower (London, 1972 – Ernö Goldfinger): A 31-story housing block with a service tower and connecting concrete bridges, regarded as an iconic example.

• Boston City Hall (1968 – Gerhard Kallmann): Distinguished by its massive form and concrete surfaces displaying formwork traces.

• Centre Georges Pompidou (Paris, 1977 – Renzo Piano, Richard Rogers): While often classified as High-Tech, its exposed structural and technical components are linked to Brutalist principles.

^{Boston City Hall (flickr)}

Türkiye

• Middle East Technical University (METU) Campus (Ankara, 1960s – Behruz and Altuğ Çinici): Especially the Faculty of Architecture, notable for its courtyard plan, exposed concrete surfaces with formwork marks, and horizontal megastructure design.

• Etimesgut Mosque (Ankara, 1967 – Cengiz Bektaş): Distinct from traditional mosque typologies, with massive, windowless walls.

• Istanbul Advertising Complex (1972 – Günay Çilingiroğlu, Muhlis Tunca): Features suspended concrete volumes and a segmented form.

• Stad Hotel, Harbiye Officers’ Club, Turkish Historical Society, Turkish Language Association, and Central Bank branches in Bursa/Konya: Showcase different typologies of public investment projects that employed Brutalist aesthetics in the 1960s–70s.

^{Turkish Historical Society (Türk Tarih Kurumu)}

Contemporary Influence

From the 1980s onward, Brutalist architecture was widely criticized for its monumental scale, rigid aesthetics, and detachment from human needs. Many buildings were demolished or repurposed, marking a period of decline. Nevertheless, the legacy of Brutalism endures today, both through ongoing debates about preservation and through contemporary architectural practices that reinterpret its principles.