Economic geography is a sub-discipline of geography that examines the spatial distribution of economic activities on the Earth's surface. While analyzing the geographical organization of production, distribution, and consumption processes, this field also considers the reciprocal relationship between the natural environment and human activities. Its main objective is to reveal why economic activities concentrate in certain places, how they are organized, and how this distribution is shaped by environmental, social, and political factors.
While economic geography investigates how different geographical environments are used by humans, it also evaluates the effects of economic systems and technological developments on spatial structures. The distribution of key economic sectors such as agriculture, industry, energy production, services, and trade are among the main areas of study in this discipline. The scale of analysis in economic geography can cover a broad spectrum, including local, regional, national, and global levels.
Additionally, economic geography is positioned as a discipline that builds a bridge between physical geography and human geography. Interactions between physical elements (climate, topography, natural resources) and human activities (population, capital, technology) are fundamental components of economic geographical analyses. This approach demonstrates that economic decisions depend not only on economic parameters but also on spatial constraints and environmental conditions.
Historical Development of Economic Geography
Economic geography began to take shape as a separate discipline in the late 19th century and evolved over time under the influence of different theoretical approaches. Initially, descriptive studies focused on mapping specific economic activities and relating them to the physical environment. During this period, environmental determinism was particularly influential; the dominant view was that economic activities were determined by natural environmental conditions.
In the first half of the 20th century, the possibilist approach came to the fore, and the impact of humans on the environment began to be emphasized. During this period, it was accepted that economic activities were shaped not only by the natural environment but also by human agency and technological developments. From the 1950s onwards, under the influence of the positivist understanding of science, quantitative methods gained importance in economic geography; spatial analyses, statistical models, and abstractions became the main tools of the discipline.
From the 1970s onwards, critical approaches began to influence economic geography; issues such as capitalist production relations, inequality, regional development disparities, and spatial injustice were included in the analytical framework. During this period, Marxist, feminist, and post-structuralist approaches were integrated into geographical thought; thus, economic geography began to focus not only on the physical characteristics of space but also on the role of social relations in the production of space.
Today, economic geography adopts a multidisciplinary approach by considering contemporary dynamics such as globalization, technological transformation, and sustainability; it analyzes complex economic relations on both local and global scales.
Key Concepts and Approaches
Economic geography analyzes the impact of space on economic activities using various conceptual frameworks and theoretical approaches. Fundamental concepts include space, place, region, distribution, flow, and relation.
Space refers to the physical and social context where economic activities occur, while place describes how these activities manifest in a specific location. Region allows for the classification of areas with similar economic characteristics.
Distribution analyzes how economic elements such as production, consumption, transportation, and labor spread across the earth. Flow describes the movement of people, goods, capital, and information, while relation explains the nature of economic connections between regions or actors.
Theoretically, spatial theories occupy an important place in economic geography. Models such as central place theory, industrial location models, and studies on the effects of transportation costs aim to understand the spatial logic of economic activities, often based on rational decision-making and optimization principles.
Recently, these have been complemented by more complex and multi-factor explanations, with network theories and global production chain approaches gaining importance. Economic relations are now also evaluated through relational networks, digital connections, and capital mobility.
Natural Resources and Economic Activities
Natural resources are key determinants in the development of economic activities. Elements such as land, water, minerals, climate, and energy potential directly affect production forms and spatial distribution.
Agriculture depends on geographic conditions. Climate, soil type, water access, and topography are the main factors determining agricultural productivity. Similarly, livestock activities depend on pasture area size, climate, and feed supply. Mining and energy production transform underground wealth into economic value, influencing settlement and industrial facility locations.
Industrial activities depend on both natural resources and human factors. Proximity to raw materials, labor potential, transportation, and market access are crucial. Industrial regions often concentrate near port cities, railway junctions, or energy corridors.
Economic geography evaluates spatial differences in natural resources, their impact on economic activities, and the environmental consequences of economic development.
Population, Settlement, and Economic Space Relationship
The distribution of population and settlement patterns are closely related to the spatial organization of economic activities. Where people live, which areas they densely use, and what activities they engage in are central to economic geography. Population density functions as an important determinant in terms of labor supply, consumption potential, and investment preferences.
Settlements have historically formed in areas close to natural resources, favorable climates, and transportation advantages. With industrialization, urbanization accelerated, and migration from rural to urban areas reshaped spatial structures.
Cities are centers where economic activities concentrate and diversify. Located at transportation network hubs, cities offer strategic advantages for production and distribution due to proximity to labor and consumer markets. The service sector, knowledge economy, and innovative technologies also primarily develop in urban areas.
Rural settlements are characterized by agriculture, livestock, and nature-based production, but today rural areas are becoming multifunctional with tourism, energy production, and ecological planning. This blurs the distinction between rural and urban spaces.
Migration and demographic changes trigger spatial change in economic geography, affecting labor distribution, settlement patterns, and infrastructure demand.
Spatial Organization of Transportation and Trade
Transportation systems and trade networks are fundamental in organizing economic activities across space. Transportation not only provides physical mobility but also determines the direction, intensity, and speed of economic interactions. Regions with high geographic accessibility are more attractive for production and consumption.
Transportation networks include road, sea, air, and rail systems, each supporting different economic activities. Heavy industry often relies on rail transport, while air transport is preferred for high-value, fast-delivery goods. Logistics centers and distribution networks are shaped by the integration of these modes.
Trade refers to the flow of goods, services, and capital between production and consumption centers. Domestic trade emphasizes local and regional infrastructure, while international trade relies on ports, free zones, and customs points. Trade routes remain key in the rise of economic centers.
Modern transportation technologies and digital trade infrastructure have reduced the constraints of geographic distance on economic activity, though this does not equally apply to all regions. Areas with weak connectivity remain at risk of economic exclusion.
Transportation and trade organizations also play a crucial role in forming clusters and special economic zones, where sectoral specialization and proximity to inputs, labor, and markets stimulate growth.
Regional Development and Geographical Inequalities
Economic geography seeks to understand regional development dynamics by analyzing disparities in development between regions. Different geographical areas differ in factors such as natural resource potential, infrastructure levels, labor quality, and capital accumulation. These differences lead to structural inequalities between economic centers and peripheral areas.
Regional development involves not just economic growth, but also improving the quality of life, income distribution, and balanced social welfare. However, development often concentrates in specific centers, pushing peripheral regions into relative disadvantage—a situation explained by the core-periphery model. Here, the core holds dominant economic, political, and cultural power, while the periphery becomes dependent on meeting the core’s needs.
The spatial dimension of economic inequality can be examined through indicators such as migration, unemployment, income gaps, infrastructure deficiencies, and disparities in access to services. Geographic differences also shape government policies. Incentive policies in underdeveloped regions, the establishment of industrial zones, the development of transportation infrastructure, and rural development programs are among strategies aimed at reducing geographical inequalities.
Achieving regional development requires not only economic investment but also holistic approaches such as spatial planning, education, building social capital, and ensuring environmental sustainability. Thus, economic geography not only analyzes current conditions but also develops proposals for building fair and balanced spatial organization.
