Ottoman coffeehouses were public spaces that gained an important place in Ottoman social life from the mid-16th century onwards. These establishments, which emerged with the arrival of coffee from Yemen to Istanbul, quickly transcended merely being a place for beverage consumption and became centers for socializing, communication, entertainment, and even political discussions.

Emergence and Spread

Coffee is thought to have first arrived in Istanbul in the early 16th century, following Sultan Selim I's Egyptian campaign. According to historian Peçevî, the first coffeehouses were opened in Tahtakale in 1554 by two individuals named Hakem from Aleppo and Şems from Damascus. Other sources also state the opening date of the first coffeehouses as 1551 or 1553. Although coffeehouses initially meant "coffee house," they quickly transformed into spaces that brought together people from various segments of society, where daily life was experienced, and cultural accumulation occurred. The number of coffeehouses in Istanbul, which was around 50 towards the end of Suleiman the Magnificent's reign, reached 600 by the end of the 16th century and 2,500 by the early 19th century.

Social and Cultural Functions

Coffeehouses were important social spaces that emerged in Ottoman society with a civilian understanding, outside of traditional institutions like the palace, madrasah, and mosque. People from different social and economic statuses would gather in these venues to converse, socialize, and participate in various cultural activities. Theatrical performances such as Meddah (storyteller), Karagöz (shadow play), Ortaoyunu (traditional Turkish theatre), and Aşık (minstrel) shows were staged in coffeehouses, and through these performances, criticisms and satires regarding current events were expressed. Especially Karagöz plays served as a kind of free press, offering critiques of social and political life.

In the early modern period, when written communication tools were limited, coffeehouses were important centers where news and rumors spread. Popular political discourses, referred to as "state conversations" (devlet sohbeti), were shaped and disseminated in these venues. With the advent of newspapers, coffeehouses also became places where newspapers were read aloud for the illiterate, and daily news was learned.

Relations with Political Authority and Prohibitions

The emergence and widespread use of coffeehouses were sometimes met negatively by religious and political authorities. Especially from the second half of the 16th century onwards, criticisms and prohibitions against coffeehouses became prevalent. In the fatwas attributed to Sheikh al-Islam Ebussuud Efendi, coffeehouses were criticized by being associated with gambling and debauchery. In these fatwas, it was the coffeehouses themselves that were targeted, rather than the act of drinking coffee directly.

The political authority viewed coffeehouses as threats to social order and morality, hotbeds of discord and mischief, and even centers for rebellion preparations. The "state conversations" and critical discourses held in coffeehouses were a source of concern for the central authority. For these reasons, throughout Ottoman history, coffeehouses faced closure and prohibition numerous times.

The first comprehensive closure orders were issued during the reigns of Selim II (1566-1574) and Murad III (1574-1595). During these periods, all coffeehouses in Istanbul were closed by the order of "külliyen ref" (complete elimination). During the reign of Murad IV (1623-1640), in 1633, the closure of all coffeehouses in Istanbul and the prohibition of coffee drinking were also ordered; 120 coffeehouses were closed in the Haslar kadi district alone. This was the last attempt at a wholesale closure.

From the mid-17th century onwards, the political authority's policy towards coffeehouses began to change. Instead of wholesale closures, a policy of surveillance and deterrence was pursued by closing some coffeehouses under the principle of "ibreten li'l-ğayr" (as a lesson to others). The increasing economic value of coffee and the revenue it provided to the state treasury played an important role in this policy change. Furthermore, the changing relationship between the state and its subjects over time, and the inclusion of Janissaries among coffeehouse owners, led the political authority to adopt a more conciliatory stance towards coffeehouses.

Types of Coffeehouses

• Merchant Coffeehouses: Venues concentrated in trade centers where merchants gathered, functioning even as a type of business office.
• Janissary Coffeehouses: Opened by Janissaries who became craftsmen from the 17th century onwards, these venues were managed with military discipline and were also associated with Bektashism. These coffeehouses were generally established in large, ornate, and scenic locations. They were also known as places where social anger emerged and political movements were planned. With the abolition of the Janissary Corps during the reign of Mahmud II, these coffeehouses also closed.
• Semai Coffeehouses (Musical Coffeehouses): After the closure of Janissary coffeehouses, these were continued by fire brigades (tulumbacıs), especially active during Ramadan, offering music and performances. Their architecture was closer to a theatre setup.
• Reading Rooms (Imaret Coffeehouses): Usually located near mosques, these were places frequented by those who wished to pass time and read something between evening and night prayers, and also where entertainments like Meddah and Karagöz were held.
• Hashish-Smoker Coffeehouses: Found especially in districts like Tahtakale, Tophane, and Silivrikapı, these were unkempt venues without distinct architectural character, whose customers consisted of hashish smokers.

Architecture and Atmosphere

Although definitive information about the architecture of classical Ottoman coffeehouses is limited, some inferences can be made from travelers' accounts and engravings. The first examples of these structures, typically single-story, were made of wood. In many coffeehouses, one would pass from a courtyard called "orta meydanı" (middle square) to the main area. The main area typically had seating arrangements (divans) around it, and there might be a fountain (şadırvan) or a pool in the center. The corner where the coffee hearth was located held an important place, with shelves for cups, cup holders (zarfs), and other coffee paraphernalia. Walls could be adorned with various plaques and paintings. Janissary coffeehouses, in particular, stood out with their decorations, wood carvings, floral reliefs, and gold leaf.

^{Reflecting a bustling Ottoman coffeehouse in 17th-century Istanbul, both its interior and a view from outside to the street. (Generated by Artificial Intelligence)}

Ottoman coffeehouses, from their emergence in the 16th century, became an indispensable part of social life, leaving deep marks in social, cultural, and political terms. They stood among the important institutions that shaped Ottoman urban life, serving both as places for gathering and entertainment, and as arenas where public opinion was formed and political discussions took place. Despite the prohibitions and pressures they faced, they maintained their existence and, over time, became indispensable elements of society.