The Anatomy Lesson of Dr. Nicolaes Tulp is a group portrait painted in 1632 by the Dutch artist Rembrandt van Rijn. The work was commissioned by the Amsterdam Guild of Surgeons to commemorate a public anatomy lesson given by Dr. Nicolaes Tulp, who held the title praelector anatomiae (Latin; lecturer in anatomy, i.e., the official anatomy instructor of the guild). The painting, measuring 169.5 x 216.5 cm, was executed using oil on canvas and is currently exhibited at the Mauritshuis Royal Picture Gallery in The Hague.
In this work, Rembrandt visually interprets not only a scientific event but also the relationship between life and death, individual and collective existence, professional hierarchy, and the link between scientific knowledge and religious symbolism. The corpse depicted in the painting belonged to Adriaen Adriaenszoon, also known as Aris Kindt, who was executed for theft.
Dr. The Anatomy Lesson of Dr Nicolaes Tulp, Rembrandt. (Flickr)
Historical Context: Anatomical Knowledge and Social Interest in the 17th Century
Beginning in the early 16th century in Europe, anatomical education had become a public event by the 17th century, particularly in the Netherlands. In 1555, with the approval of King Philip II, the Amsterdam Guild of Surgeons was granted the privilege of using the bodies of executed criminals for anatomical instruction via dissection (the scientific cutting and examination of the body). These lessons were held once a year during the winter months, as the cold weather helped preserve the bodies.
Such demonstrations were not only open to medical students but also to the paying public. Among the audience were physicians, surgeons, jurists, and nobles. The anatomical theater located in the public building De Waag (the Weigh House), with a capacity of 200–300 spectators, hosted these events.
Every few years, to commemorate the event, the guild commissioned a group portrait from a painter. The Anatomy Lesson of Dr. Tulp, as part of this tradition, was painted in honor of Nicolaes Tulp’s first public lecture following his appointment as praelector anatomiae in 1628.
The Artist: Rembrandt van Rijn (1606–1669)
Rembrandt Harmenszoon van Rijn was born in Leiden in 1606 and died in Amsterdam in 1669. He is considered one of the most important artists of the Dutch Golden Age. Over a career spanning nearly forty years, he produced around 400 paintings, more than 1,000 drawings, and approximately 300 etchings.
Rembrandt began his career in Leiden and moved to Amsterdam in 1631 after achieving early success. This prestigious commission in 1632 brought him significant recognition in Amsterdam's art circles and marked a turning point in his career. Known for his masterful use of light and shadow (chiaroscuro) technique, Rembrandt’s art is characterized by psychologically rich portraits and dramatic compositions.
Rembrandt van Rijn. (Generated by Artificial Intelligence)
Light and Shadow (Chiaroscuro) Technique
One of Rembrandt’s most characteristic artistic techniques is chiaroscuro (Italian for "light-dark"), which creates volume, depth, and dramatic emphasis through strong contrasts of light and shadow. In The Anatomy Lesson of Dr. Nicolaes Tulp, this technique is prominently applied to narrative focal points such as Tulp’s hands and face, as well as the corpse’s left forearm. The background remains in shadow, allowing the figures to stand out. Thus, the viewer is drawn into the heart of the event not only visually, but also psychologically.
Composition: Pyramidal Structure and a Break from Classical Tradition
Rembrandt abandoned the classical horizontal alignment common in Dutch group portraits of the time in favor of a more dynamic and vertical pyramidal composition. In traditional group portraits, the figures are arranged in a horizontal line and look directly at the viewer. In contrast, Rembrandt structured his composition into a triangle with Dr. Tulp positioned at the center, establishing a visual hierarchy. At the apex of this pyramid sits surgeon Frans van Loenen; his gaze and pointing finger serve as a visual call to contemplate the corpse and, symbolically, mortality.
The figures’ gazes vary: some look at Tulp, some at the corpse, and others directly at the viewer. This diversity creates a vivid atmosphere where the event is experienced from multiple perspectives. The figure of the surgeon leaning forward enhances the sense of three-dimensional space and draws the viewer into the scene. This type of arrangement represents not only a technical innovation but also a narrative and symbolic revolution.
The Corpse: Aris Kindt (Adriaen Adriaenszoon)
The cadaver depicted in the painting belonged to Adriaen Adriaenszoon, known as Aris Kindt. With a long criminal record, Kindt was executed in 1632 for stealing a coat and committing an act of violence. It was common practice to use the bodies of executed criminals for public anatomy lessons. It has been discovered that Rembrandt initially painted the right arm of the corpse as severed, but later changed it to appear whole. This alteration may have been made for aesthetic or ethical reasons.
Dr. The Anatomy Lesson of Dr Nicolaes Tulp, Rembrandt. (Flickr)
Anatomical Accuracy and Terminology
Rembrandt correctly depicted the muscle group grasped by Tulp’s forceps, starting at the medial epicondyle (the inner protrusion of the upper arm bone) and showing the flexor muscles that extend toward the fingers. Epicondyles are bony prominences on the lower end of the humerus, where muscles attach. Although it was initially claimed that Rembrandt misplaced these muscles, comparative dissection studies conducted in 2008 revealed that he largely adhered to anatomical accuracy. Four minor discrepancies were identified:
- The slanted muscle depicted in the ulnar (elbow) region does not appear in the actual cadaver.
- The flexor muscle is depicted as larger than it is in reality.
- Tendons of the superficial and deep muscles are reversed,
- A white cord-like structure at the level of the little finger was not observed in the real cadaver.
These differences may be attributed either to artistic choices or individual anatomical variation.
Rembrandt’s “Gradual On-Canvas Construction” Method
Rembrandt employed a method of building the composition directly on the canvas in stages, rather than preparing a detailed preliminary sketch. This allowed the painting to be revised and reshaped multiple times during the process. In The Anatomy Lesson of Dr. Nicolaes Tulp, this approach has been documented through X-ray and infrared analyses:
- The right arm of the cadaver was initially painted as severed, then later made whole,
- The hat on Frans van Loenen’s head was painted out,
- The paper held by one of the surgeons originally contained an anatomical drawing, later replaced by the names of the surgeons; this layer was partially removed during the last restoration, revealing the original drawing beneath.
These findings show that Rembrandt developed the composition both visually and conceptually through trial and error. Additionally, this painting marks the first time he signed his name simply as “Rembrandt. f[ecit] 1632” (“Rembrandt made [this], 1632”), indicating a transition into his mature period.
“Rembrandt. f[ecit] 1632” (Rembrandt made this, 1632). (Flickr)
Vesalius’s Influence and the Symbolic Dimension
The dissection of the forearm in the painting directly references the frontispiece of Andreas Vesalius’s (1514–1564) De Humani Corporis Fabrica (On the Fabric of the Human Body in Seven Books, 1543), where Vesalius is shown dissecting forearm muscles. Vesalius laid the foundations of modern anatomy by questioning ancient authorities and relying on empirical observations of the human body. The engraving on the front cover of his book depicts him examining forearm musculature. It is believed that Tulp may have sought to position himself as the 17th-century successor to Vesalius.
Bringing together technical mastery, psychological depth, symbolic narrative, and scientific references, this work transformed the genre of group portraiture and made Rembrandt’s artistic vision visible to a broader public.
