The Annales School, which emerged in France in the early 20th century, brought a strong critique to traditional event-centered approaches in historiography. The founders of this school, Lucien Febvre and Marc Bloch, found it inadequate to narrate history solely through political events and great leaders, arguing that social structures, economic relations, and cultural dynamics shape the historical process. Developing an interdisciplinary approach intertwined with social sciences, the Annales School gained further strength with Fernand Braudel’s contributions and left a lasting impact on global historiography.
The Emergence and Founders of the Annales School
Annales. Histoire, Sciences Sociales is a French academic journal focusing on social history, founded in 1929 by Marc Bloch and Lucien Febvre. This journal pioneered the emergence of the movement known as the Annales School, which introduced a new approach to history. Initially established in Strasbourg under the name Annales d'histoire économique et sociale, the journal was later moved to Paris and retained the same name until 1939. Over the years, it underwent several name changes, as follows:
The First Volume of Annales D'Histoire Sociale - 1939
- Annales d'histoire sociale (1939–1942, 1945)
- Mélanges d'histoire sociale (1942–1944)
- Annales. Economies, sociétés, civilisations (1946–1994)
- Since 1994, it has been published under the name Annales. Histoire, Sciences Sociales.
Founded in France in 1929 alongside the establishment of the journal, the Annales School was developed by Lucien Febvre and Marc Bloch as a new historiographical approach. In its early years, the school criticized classical historiographical methods and argued that history should be examined through social structures, economy, and cultural elements. The two founders brought a broader perspective to the field of history.
A Critical Perspective on Historiography
Febvre and Bloch found the traditional narrative of history, which focused solely on events, inadequate in the early 20th century. They argued that the conventional historical approach, which emphasized political and military events, failed to consider the long-term influence of social structures, cultural dynamics, and economic processes on societies. This shortcoming, they believed, overshadowed collective consciousness and the impact of social structures, confining historiography to a narrow perspective.
Febvre and Bloch’s Understanding of History
Lucien Febvre emphasized that history should be studied alongside other social sciences such as sociology, psychology, and geography. He believed that historians should benefit from different disciplines within the social sciences. According to Febvre, history should not be confined to a chronological sequence of events but should focus on the long-term analysis of human behaviors and social structures. Marc Bloch, in his work Feudal Society, emphasized the importance of social structures in historiography, advocating for the study of the underlying social frameworks behind historical events.
Lucien Febvre
The Concept of Mentalité and Collective Consciousness
Marc Bloch's concept of mentalité (mentality or collective consciousness) is a historical analysis approach aimed at understanding the general attitudes, beliefs, and values of societies during specific periods. According to Bloch, in order to understand the social context behind events, historians must focus on the thought patterns, or mentalité, of the people of that era. This concept is one of the most fundamental innovations introduced by the Annales School, examining the mental and cultural processes behind events and analyzing how people's perspectives on nature, religion, or governance shaped historical processes.
The Interdisciplinary Approach of the Annales School
The Annales School approached history as a holistic science, focusing on the analysis of economic and social structures rather than events and political leaders. Febvre and Bloch established the Annales journal to promote this new understanding of history and emphasized that history should advance in collaboration with other disciplines. In this context, the idea that history cannot be considered in isolation from social sciences and must interact with other disciplines to understand social structures came to the forefront.
Braudel and the Structural History Approach
Fernand Braudel, one of the second-generation representatives of the Annales School, argued that history is not merely a discipline that sequences events but rather one based on deep structural analyses. In this regard, Braudel developed a three-layered temporal model for historical analysis, which consists of:
- Geo-history: Examining the influence of geography and environmental conditions on societies.
- Structural Processes: The long-term economic and social structures that gradually shape societies.
- Events: Short-term occurrences that traditional historiography often focuses on.
In this sense, Braudel's work laid the foundations of spatial history, emphasizing the spatial and structural dimensions of historical processes.
Braudel's Layers of Time
Fernand Braudel's concept of layers of time aims to move beyond event-based historiography and focus on long-term structural factors. The first layer, geo-history, examines the influence of geography and environmental conditions on societies. The second layer focuses on economic and social structures, which develop slowly but have a profound impact on the overall structure of societies. The third layer includes short-term events and individuals, which are the focus of traditional historiography.
Geo-History and the Role of Geography
Braudel's first layer, geo-history, emphasizes the determining role of geography in history. According to him, fixed structures such as geography are fundamental elements that directly influence societies' ways of life and historical development. For example, in his work The Mediterranean and the Mediterranean World, Braudel demonstrates how the geographical features of the Mediterranean region shaped the social and economic structures of the societies living there.
Elements such as climate, maritime routes, and natural resources are, according to Braudel, the foundational pillars on which long-term history is built. The opportunities and limitations provided by geography create a continuous and unchanging impact on social structures. Therefore, analyzing this geo-historical layer is essential for understanding the deep roots of history.
Economic and Social Structures
The second layer focuses on the social and economic structures of societies and examines the slow but lasting impact of these elements on historical processes. According to Braudel, factors such as social classes, trade systems, and economic organizations determine the collective consciousness, social dynamics, and lifestyles of societies.
In this layer, history is understood not through the short-term influence of individuals or leaders but through structures that develop gradually and take deep root. Braudel argues that economic systems such as feudalism or capitalism are fundamental dynamics that shape societies' behaviors and value systems. This layer helps us understand the root causes of social change by analyzing the economic and social structures of specific periods.
Effects of Structural History Approach
Braudel's third layer, the time of events, encompasses short-term events that traditional historiography focuses on, such as wars, political changes, and leadership decisions. This level of analysis investigates the influence of individuals and specific events on history. However, according to Braudel, these events are merely surface-level changes in the broader historical process.
Braudel argues that such events rarely lead to lasting social changes. For example, while wars and government changes may attract historians' attention, they often fail to leave a permanent mark on deeper social structures. According to him, the effects of events are temporary, and their significance can only be understood when combined with the long-term effects of social and economic structures.
The Global Impact and Legacy of the Annales School
Although the Annales School originated in France, it quickly became an influential force in global historiography. Its impact increased further with the third generation of Annales historians, who played a crucial role in the development of social history, microhistory, and the history of mentalities on an international scale.
Microhistory and the History of Mentalities
The third generation of the Annales School, especially Philippe Ariès and Robert Mandrou, examined the impact of social structures on daily life, conducting studies in the fields of microhistory and the history of mentalities. Ariès analyzed concepts such as childhood and death, exploring how individuals and societies perceive transformation processes.
Mandrou focused on collective consciousness and the history of mentalities, demonstrating how societies' thought structures can be incorporated into historiography.
The Global Legacy of the Annales School
The innovative approach of the Annales School has increased interest in social, cultural, and mental history worldwide. The methods and analyses developed by the school have been adopted by historians in the United States and Europe, adapting them to different societies and expanding the methodological foundations of social history.
Thus, the Annales School has fostered a stronger connection between history and the social sciences and has pioneered an interdisciplinary approach to the study of history.
The Influence of the Annales School in Türkiye
This innovative approach has also influenced historiography in Türkiye and was particularly adopted by some Turkish historians before 1980. The impact of the Annales School on Turkish historiography can be observed in the development of social history through prominent historians such as Fuad Köprülü, Ömer Lütfi Barkan, and Halil İnalcık.
The First Mystics in Turkish Literature - The First Edition
Innovations Introduced to Turkish Historiography
The Annales School introduced significant innovations to Turkish historiography by moving beyond event-centered narratives and emphasizing the long-term analysis of social, economic, and cultural structures. Instead of explanations based solely on events and prominent figures, the Annales School proposed a broader perspective on historical developments. One of the most important contributions of this school to Türkiye was the emphasis on analyzing the social dynamics, economic systems, and daily life of society.
Thus, Turkish historians have placed not only state policies or military events but also social structures and the lives of ordinary people at the center of historiography, contributing to the development of social history. This approach has introduced new perspectives in the studies of the Ottoman and early Republican periods and paved the way for a multidisciplinary examination of history.
The Annales approach has also been a significant inspiration for Ottoman historiography and social history writing in Türkiye. The influence of the Annales School on Turkish historiography has left notable marks on studies of Ottoman and Turkish history since the 1930s. The most evident impact of this school is seen in the contributions of historians focusing on social history. For example, studies on Ottoman population censuses can be evaluated within this framework.
Key Figures in Turkish Historiography
With the establishment of the nation-state in Türkiye, M. Fuad Köprülü played a pioneering role in researching the cultural roots of the Turkish nation and made significant contributions to Turkish historiography through his original research. According to a widespread view, Köprülü was one of the first Turkish historians to embrace the social historiography approach of the Annales School. His work focuses on analyzing social and cultural structures to explain historical events. In particular, his studies on Ottoman social structures reflect the Annales method of social analysis.
Köprülü did not examine historical events solely from a political perspective but also considered social structures, thereby laying the foundation for modern social historiography in Türkiye. However, the connection between Köprülü and the Annales School can also be interpreted differently.
Köprülü, who closely followed new historiographical approaches in the West, particularly in France, emphasized that national history can only be analyzed effectively within the context of general history. According to Ahmet Yaşar Ocak, Köprülü introduced the perspective of social history to Türkiye with his work Türk Edebiyatında İlk Mutasavvıflar (The First Sufis in Turkish Literature). However, since this work was published before the emergence of the Annales School, it can be argued that Köprülü's studies were influenced more by the "new wave of French historiography" rather than the direct influence of Annales.
Ömer Lütfi Barkan deepened the influence of Annales in Türkiye by pioneering economic and demographic analyses in Ottoman historiography. Barkan conducted comprehensive research on the economic and social structures of the Ottoman Empire through a meticulous empirical method based on archival documents. His studies on the lives of Ottoman peasants align with the Annales School's broad understanding of history, analyzing the impact of economic processes on social structures.
Halil İnalcık
Halil İnalcık is considered one of the most prominent representatives of the Annales School in Türkiye and is recognized as the historian who fully embraced its influence. İnalcık adopted Braudel's structural analysis methods and applied them to Ottoman history through extensive socio-economic and cultural analyses. His works expanded the scope of social historiography by incorporating the long-term analytical approach advocated by Annales. In this regard, İnalcık is regarded as the historian who most comprehensively represented the methodology of the Annales School in Türkiye.
The Annales School has adopted an interdisciplinary approach that goes beyond traditional event-centered historiography, advocating for the study of societies through their economic, social, and cultural structures. Founded by Lucien Febvre and Marc Bloch, the school introduced a broader perspective to historical analysis, which was further deepened by Fernand Braudel through his structural analysis methods. Braudel’s three-layered model of time evaluates historical processes not through short-term events, but through long-term influences such as geographical and economic structures.
The influence of the Annales School extended beyond France, contributing to global historiography and pioneering the development of fields such as social history and microhistory. In Türkiye, historians such as M. Fuad Köprülü, Ömer Lütfi Barkan, and Halil İnalcık incorporated the structural analysis approach of the Annales School into Ottoman and Turkish historiography, placing social structures at the core of historical studies.
