Pergamon (modern-day Bergama), one of the most important cultural and political centers of the Hellenistic Period, became a royal capital that made significant advancements in science, art, and architecture. Developing as the center of the Kingdom of Pergamon from the 3rd century BCE onward, the city remained one of the most powerful kingdoms in the region until it came under Roman rule in 133 BCE. As a representative of Hellenistic culture, Pergamon became one of the leading metropolises of its time with its advanced urban planning, monumental structures, library, and artistic works.

^{Pergamon (Photograph: Meryem Şentürk Çoban)}

Location

Pergamon is an ancient city established on the fertile lands of the Kaikos (Bakırçay) Valley in Western Anatolia. The city is located in the northwestern part of the Mysia region, approximately 15 km inland from the sea, on a mountain slope where the Keteios (Kestel Çayı) and Selinus (Bergama Çayı) rivers merge.

The elevation of ancient Pergamon is 63 meters above sea level, while the Acropolis reaches up to 335 meters. Its strategic location provided both defensive advantages and economic development due to its proximity to trade routes.

The city's borders extended north to the Adramytteion (Edremit) Gulf and east to Attaleia (the Lydia region northeast of Akhisar). Pergamon was neighboring cities such as Apollonia, Apollonis, Philadelphia, Eumenia, and Dionysopolis in the east. Additionally, the fertile lands of the Kaikos Plain and surrounding mining activities strengthened Pergamon’s economic power.

The city was built in two main sections:

Upper City (Acropolis): Hosted administrative centers, temples, the theater, and the library.
Lower City: The residential area where social and religious structures were located.

The strategic and defensible position of Pergamon allowed it to develop as a strong fortress city during the Hellenistic period, supporting its role as the capital of the kingdom.

History

Early Period and Foundation

The earliest settlement traces of Pergamon date back to the 3rd millennium BCE. Proto-Corinthian ceramic findings in the region indicate that the city was inhabited as early as the 8th century BCE. However, excavations conducted in the 1960s revealed tombs dating back to the Early Bronze Age, pushing the history of Pergamon even further into antiquity.

According to mythological accounts, Pergamon was named after a colonist leader named Pergamos, who came from Arcadia. Philological studies suggest that the word "Pergamos" means fortress, tower, or small settlement, and is of Anatolian origin.

During the Persian Empire period, Pergamon became an important fortress city from the 6th century BCE onward. It is known that Persian King Darius and his son Xerxes resettled exiled Greek populations in the Kaikos Valley. In 547 BCE, after the Persians defeated the Lydian Kingdom, Pergamon came under Persian rule.

By the 4th century BCE, as Persian dominance weakened, Pergamon was governed by a leader named Gongylos of Eretria. Gongylos had been exiled from Greece for supporting the Persians but was later appointed as the ruler of Pergamon by the Persian administration.

Kingdom of Pergamon During the Hellenistic Period

The rise of Pergamon during the Hellenistic period began with Alexander the Great (356-323 BCE) conquering the Persian Empire. In 334 BCE, at the Battle of Granicus, Alexander defeated the Persians and took control of a large part of Anatolia. However, Alexander’s sudden death in 323 BCE led to a power struggle among his generals, during which Pergamon came under the rule of Lysimachus.

After the Battle of Ipsus (301 BCE), Lysimachus took control of the Mysia region and appointed Philetairos of Tieion as the commander of the Pergamon Fortress. However, in 282 BCE, Philetairos betrayed Lysimachus, seized his treasury, and allied with Seleucus I Nicator, laying the foundations for Pergamon’s independence.

In 281 BCE, following the death of Seleucus I Nicator, Pergamon became a fully independent state under the leadership of Philetairos. However, Philetairos never claimed the title of king, instead governing as a ruler nominally loyal to the Seleucid dynasty.

Attalid Dynasty and the Golden Age of Pergamon (280-133 BCE)

After Philetairos, the rule of Pergamon passed to his nephew Eumenes I (263-241 BCE). Eumenes I declared independence from the Seleucid Empire and established Pergamon as an independent kingdom.

I. Attalos (241-197 BCE) and Pergamon’s Expansion

During the reign of Attalos I (241-197 BCE), Pergamon experienced its greatest territorial expansion:

In 241 BCE, he defeated the Galatians, earning the title "Soter" (Savior).
He successfully fought against the Seleucid Empire and expanded Pergamon’s territory.
He incorporated many cities in Aeolis and Ionia, making Pergamon one of the most powerful states in the region.

II. Eumenes (197-159 BCE) and the Rise of Pergamon

Under Eumenes II (197-159 BCE), Pergamon formed a strong alliance with Rome, establishing itself as a major power in the Hellenistic world:

In 190 BCE, he supported Rome in the Battle of Magnesia, defeating the Seleucids and gaining control of many cities in the region.
He expanded the Pergamon Library, contributing significantly to cultural and intellectual development.
Pergamon began to be seen as a "second Athens", becoming one of the cultural capitals of the Hellenistic world.

The End of the Attalid Dynasty and Roman Annexation

The last king of Pergamon, Attalos III (138-133 BCE), bequeathed the kingdom to Rome. However, Aristonikos, claiming to be the rightful heir, led a rebellion against Roman rule.

The revolt lasted from 133 to 129 BCE but was ultimately suppressed by Rome.
As a result, Pergamon was incorporated into the Roman Republic as part of the Province of Asia.

Pergamon During the Roman Period (133 BCE - 395 CE)

After coming under Roman rule, Pergamon continued to be an important center as the capital of the Roman province of Asia.

During the Roman period, the city was expanded, with the construction of roads, baths, temples, and monumental structures.
Pergamon became a significant center for medicine, known as the birthplace and workplace of the famous physician Galen, who played a crucial role in the history of medicine.
Imperial forums and temples were built, reflecting Roman architectural influence.
As the Roman Empire weakened, Pergamon's importance declined, and the city lost its former glory during the Byzantine period.

Cultural and Archaeological Legacy of Pergamon

Today, Pergamon is a major archaeological site protected through excavations and restoration projects.

In 2014, it was inscribed on the UNESCO World Heritage List.
Excavations led by German archaeologists unearthed key structures such as the Altar of Zeus, the Temple of Athena, and the Pergamon Library.
The Bergama Museum was established to preserve Pergamon’s historical artifacts, ensuring that the ancient city's legacy continues to be remembered.

Architectural Structures and Archaeological Remains of Pergamon

During the Hellenistic and Roman periods, Pergamon had an advanced urban plan, incorporating numerous monumental structures. Initially built as a fortress city for defense, it later developed into a major administrative, cultural, educational, and religious center. The city was divided into two main sections: the Acropolis (Upper City) and the Lower City, featuring key public structures such as a theater, temples, a library, and a gymnasium, making it one of the best examples of Hellenistic urbanization.

Acropolis (Upper City)

The most remarkable architectural structures of Pergamon are concentrated in the Acropolis, situated at the city's highest point. This area held great significance both administratively and religiously, housing major landmarks such as the Temple of Athena, the Pergamon Royal Library, the Altar of Zeus, the Theater, royal palaces, and various stoas.

Temple of Athena

One of the oldest temples in Pergamon, dedicated to Athena, the city’s protector goddess.
Constructed in Doric order using andesite stone.
Surrounded by a marble colonnade and stoas.
During the reign of Attalos I (241-197 BCE), the temple was decorated with numerous votive statues, making it an important religious center.

Altar of Zeus

Considered one of the largest and most significant altars of the Hellenistic period.
Built by Eumenes II (197-159 BCE) in honor of Zeus.
Famous for its relief sculptures depicting Gigantomachy (the battle between gods and giants).
Excavated by German archaeologist Carl Humann in the 19th century, with a large portion relocated to the Pergamon Museum in Berlin, where it is exhibited today.

Pergamon Royal Library

One of the largest libraries of the ancient world, holding 200,000 volumes.
Competed with the libraries of Alexandria and Antioch.
Led to the widespread use of parchment (pergamena), making Pergamon a prominent intellectual hub.
The main building was adjacent to the Temple of Athena, with walls specifically designed for book storage.

Pergamon Theater

Known as the steepest theater in the Hellenistic world.
Seated approximately 10,000 people and played a central role in the city’s social and cultural life.
Built in proximity to royal palaces and religious sites, reflecting its significant role in civic life.

These architectural and archaeological remains demonstrate Pergamon’s prominence in Hellenistic and Roman times, emphasizing its cultural, scientific, and artistic contributions.

^{Pergamon Theater (Photograph: Meryem Şentürk Çoban)}

Royal Palaces

The palace complexes used by the Attalid Dynasty were located at the highest points of the Acropolis.
The complex included the king’s private chambers, areas for military units, and administrative offices.
The gymnasium and agora, situated near the palaces, functioned as the administrative and academic centers of the city.

Lower City and Public Structures

Located outside the Acropolis, the Lower City was the residential and commercial hub of Pergamon, containing various public buildings and trade centers. This area included the Gymnasium, Agora, Stadium, and the Temple of Demeter.

Gymnasium (Educational Center)

A significant institution in antiquity where young men received both physical and intellectual training.
Built in the Hellenistic period with a three-level structure:
The upper level housed an academic center for advanced education.
The middle and lower levels were designed for athletic activities.

Agora (Commercial and Gathering Area)

The economic center of the city, used for both trade and political meetings.
Divided into Lower Agora and Upper Agora:
Lower Agora served as a marketplace for daily commercial activities.
Upper Agora housed administrative buildings and official gatherings.

Temple of Demeter

A Hellenistic-period temple dedicated to Demeter, the goddess of agriculture and fertility.
Surrounded by a colonnaded portico, marking it as a significant religious site.
Excavations have revealed that various religious ceremonies related to agriculture and harvests were conducted in this sanctuary.

Architectural Expansion of Pergamon During the Roman Period

After coming under Roman control in 133 BCE, Pergamon became the capital of the Roman province of Asia and was expanded following Roman architectural principles.

Asklepion (Healing and Medical Center)

One of the most significantly developed structures during the Roman period.
A medical complex dedicated to Asclepius, the god of medicine, becoming one of the most important medical centers of antiquity.
Various treatment methods were applied here, including water therapies, herbal medicine, and surgical procedures.

Roman Theater

Originally built during the Hellenistic period, the theater was expanded and renovated in the Roman era.
A new stage building and additional seating areas were added, making it suitable for Roman-style performances.

Temple of Trajan

A temple built in honor of Emperor Trajan.
Constructed using large marble blocks in accordance with Roman architectural traditions.
Located near the theater complex, reflecting the monumental architecture of the era.

Economic Resources and Trade

The economy of Pergamon was primarily based on agriculture, mining, and trade.

The fertile lands of the Kaikos (Bakırçay) Valley supported the production of grain, grapes, olives, and fruits.
The region was rich in mineral deposits, particularly gold, silver, and copper, which significantly contributed to Pergamon’s economic strength.
Ceramic and perfume production played an essential role in Pergamon’s commerce. Perfumes made from local aromatic plants were exported to various Mediterranean cities.
Another key factor in Pergamon’s economic prominence was its coinage system. The city minted silver and bronze coins, which served as a symbol of its economic power.

Religious Centers and Cults in Pergamon

During the Hellenistic and Roman periods, Pergamon was not only a political and economic hub but also a significant religious center. The city housed numerous temples and sacred sites, which played a vital role in both religious rituals and political legitimacy.

Temple of Athena: One of Pergamon’s most important religious structures, surrounded by colonnaded galleries and votive steles.
Altar of Zeus: Excavated in the 19th century and transported to Berlin, where it is now displayed in the Pergamon Museum.
Temple of Demeter: Encircled by colonnaded galleries, this temple hosted various agricultural festivals.
Asklepion (Healing and Medical Center): Flourished during the Roman period, gaining fame for its healing waters, water therapies, and surgical treatments. The renowned physician Galen received his medical education and conducted research here.

Art and Culture in Pergamon

During the Hellenistic and Roman periods, Pergamon emerged as one of the most advanced cities in the fields of art and culture. The city made significant progress in sculpture, relief art, and architecture, leaving a lasting artistic legacy.