The press, in its broadest sense, refers to communication activities that fulfill the function of delivering news, information, opinions, and commentary to the public, as well as the mediums through which these activities are carried out. Initially, the term encompassed only printed publications, but over time it has come to represent a broader meaning, including visual and digital platforms.

The press is regarded as a tool for ensuring both individuals' and societies' right to access information. In this context, it not only serves to convey news, but also plays roles such as shaping public opinion, ensuring social oversight, supporting critical thinking, and contributing to the democratic process. The fundamental characteristic of the press is that its content production is continuous and of a public nature.

^{An image representing the press. (photograph: Mido Makasardi)}

History

The press is the general term for written, visual, or digital media outlets aimed at informing the public and facilitating societal communication. The history of the press begins with the invention of writing. The first written documents emerged in Mesopotamia in the 3rd millennium BCE, and in ancient Rome, press activities began with official documents shared with the public under the name "Acta Diurna."

The invention of the printing press by Gutenberg in the 15th century marked a significant turning point in the development of the press. With the impact of the printing press, newspapers and brochures began to spread rapidly, and in 1605, the first modern newspaper, "Relation," was published in Germany. In the 18th century, during the Enlightenment period, the press became a powerful tool for informing society, and press freedom became a major topic of debate.

In the 16th century, the Industrial Revolution accelerated newspaper production, and in the 20th century, new media tools such as television and radio played an important role in the development of the press. By the 21st century, the rise of digital media, influenced by the internet, led to the rapid dissemination of news through digital platforms. This digital transformation has significantly altered the role and impact of the press.

Types of the Press

The press is divided into various types based on the form of content it conveys, the tools and technologies it uses. Throughout history, these types have not been mutually exclusive but have often complemented one another. The evolution of press types through written, visual, and digital mediums has transformed both content production methods and the relationship with the public. Below, the main types of the press and their functional characteristics are explained.

Written Press

Written press refers to content published through printed (physical) mediums. This type is considered the first form of modern journalism and has long served the function of informing, educating, and guiding the public.

• Newspapers are printed publications that are released daily or weekly, featuring a variety of content such as news, commentary, interviews, and advertisements. They have historically been one of the most effective tools for reaching large audiences, covering a wide range of topics, and capturing the pulse of public opinion.
• Magazines are publications that focus on specific topics and are typically released weekly, monthly, or seasonally. They provide content in thematic areas such as culture, literature, politics, science, and economics, offering more in-depth analyses and special feature stories compared to newspapers.
• Bulletins are short-term periodic publications aimed at more limited target audiences. These are commonly used for internal communication within institutions or for specific communities. Official institutions, universities, non-governmental organizations, and professional associations often utilize bulletins.

Visual Press

Visual press refers to media that combines news and informational content with visual and auditory elements. Developed in the second half of the 20th century, this form has become one of the most powerful means of mass communication.

• Television is a medium that combines audio and visual broadcasting, allowing it to inform and entertain the public simultaneously. Through news programs, talk shows, documentaries, and live broadcasts, television offers a wide range of content. Television journalism is particularly effective in crisis situations, as it allows events to be reported instantaneously and visually.
• Cinema news includes short news clips shown before movie screenings, particularly before the widespread use of television. This type was influential in the first half of the 20th century but largely lost its significance with the mass adoption of television.

Digital / Online Press

Digital press refers to news and informational content published through online platforms, based on internet technologies. This type includes both digital extensions of traditional press and new forms of media that exist exclusively in digital environments.

• News websites are the most common examples of online journalism. These platforms publish news articles, commentary, analyses, and videos about current events. The primary advantages of this type include interactive visitor engagement, the use of multimedia, and the rapid updating of content.
• Blogs are personalized digital publishing spaces where individual or organizational content creators share their opinions on various topics. Unlike traditional media, blogs do not restrict news production and dissemination to professional journalists, which has given rise to the concept of citizen journalism. Blogs often feature content based on information, personal experiences, or critiques.

Alternative and Independent Media

Alternative media refers to media outlets that operate outside of the mainstream, often adopting a critical stance toward it. These outlets typically follow an independent editorial policy free from government censorship or influence from large capital groups. Alternative media seeks to be the voice of marginalized groups, highlight stories ignored by the mainstream, and support critical thinking.

The concept of independent media overlaps with alternative media but emphasizes financial, editorial, and political independence. Digital platforms, in particular, have provided a crucial space for independent media initiatives, resulting in publications sustained by individual efforts or small teams, often funded through volunteer support or crowdfunding.

The Press and the Law

The press is a cornerstone of democratic societies. Its ability to function effectively relies on the legal guarantee of both freedom of expression and press freedom. Legal systems strive to protect individuals' right to access information as well as the freedom of journalists to carry out their role in public oversight. However, this freedom can be restricted in certain circumstances for reasons such as public order, national security, privacy, or the independence of the judiciary.

^{An image representing the relationship between the press and the law. (Photograph: Katrin Bolovtsova)}

The Concept of Press Freedom

Press freedom is a fundamental form of freedom of expression that guarantees the rights of media outlets to report news, offer commentary, disseminate information, and produce criticism. This freedom not only protects journalists but also encompasses the public's right to access accurate and diverse information. Press freedom means independence from state interference, as well as ensuring that media workers can operate free from economic, administrative, and political pressures. In modern legal systems, press freedom is considered alongside freedom of expression and is regarded as one of the prerequisites for a democratic society.

Censorship, Self-Censorship, and Legal Limitations

Censorship refers to the prior review and prohibition of news and publications by authorized authorities. In modern democratic systems, censorship practices are explicitly prohibited by constitutional provisions. In Turkey, the constitution takes a clear stance against such interventions.

However, even in the absence of direct state intervention, self-censorship remains a widespread issue. This occurs when media workers, considering the possibility of pressure, dismissal, or threats of legal action, impose restrictions on their own content. Self-censorship often correlates with economic or political pressures.

Legal limitations are regulations that define the boundaries of freedom of expression and press freedom. Certain articles in the Penal Code (such as those regarding insults to state officials, incitement to hatred, or terrorist propaganda) can, when interpreted broadly, pose a threat to press freedom. Therefore, it is crucial for judicial authorities to interpret these boundaries narrowly in order to maintain a balance between freedom and security.

International Documents (Universal Declaration of Human Rights, Article 10 of the ECHR)

Press freedom is protected not only in national constitutions and laws but also in international human rights documents.

Article 19 of the 1948 Universal Declaration of Human Rights states, "Everyone has the right to freedom of opinion and expression. This right includes freedom to hold opinions without interference and to seek, receive, and impart information and ideas through any media and regardless of frontiers." This article demonstrates that press freedom is recognized as a universal human right.

The European Convention on Human Rights (ECHR), which is binding for countries that are members of the Council of Europe, also secures freedom of expression and press freedom under its Article 10. Article 10 acknowledges the right to express opinions, receive information, and disseminate it. However, it also accepts that this freedom may be subject to certain restrictions. These restrictions must be "in accordance with the requirements of democratic society, proportionate, and necessary." The European Court of Human Rights (ECHR) solidifies the limits of these freedoms through its rulings, establishing case law that monitors the implementation of these rights by states.

Press Ethics and Responsibility

The press is not only a tool for reporting news and informing the public but also a powerful institution that guides and shapes society. Therefore, it is essential that journalistic activities are carried out not only within a legal framework but also according to ethical principles. Press ethics consists of fundamental guidelines that ensure journalism is conducted honestly, fairly, and responsibly, in line with the public good.

Principles of Accuracy, Impartiality, and Source Attribution

• Accuracy is the cornerstone of journalism. Investigating the truth of a news story is not only a matter of respecting the news itself but also the public's right to be informed. Reporting unverified claims can damage individuals' reputations and contribute to misinformation within society.
• Impartiality means that journalists should approach events without allowing their personal judgment or interests to influence the story. Striking a balance between parties, representing different viewpoints, and separating commentary from factual reporting are key elements of this principle. Impartiality also includes the media’s independence from political or economic power centers.
• Source Attribution is another ethical principle that enhances the credibility of a news story. Citing the person, institution, or document from which information is obtained provides transparency to the public and ensures accountability in cases of misinformation. The use of anonymous sources should be an exception and only employed when public interest justifies it.

Press Code of Ethics

Many countries around the world regulate journalism within a framework of specific ethical principles. These rules ensure that journalists fulfill their responsibilities to the public, adhering to fundamental values such as impartiality and accuracy. For example, in several European countries, press freedom is recognized as a right that is balanced by the press's social responsibilities.

The global press code of ethics generally includes the following elements:

• The public’s right to accurate information must be protected,
• Publications that promote violence, discrimination, and hatred should be avoided,
• Personal rights and privacy must be respected,
• Inaccurate information should be corrected, and statements should be clear,
• Confidential information should only be disclosed when it serves the public interest.

Additionally, press organizations have established independent mechanisms to oversee ethical violations and respond to complaints. These structures play a crucial role in ensuring that journalistic activities are conducted in a safe and ethical manner within society.

Disinformation

In the media and press, disinformation refers to the intentional spread of false or misleading information. Disinformation is often disseminated with the goal of achieving a specific objective, manipulating public opinion, or targeting an individual, group, or ideology. Such information is typically supported by manipulation, misleading visuals, false data, or distorted commentary.

Social media and digital platforms play a significant role in the spread of disinformation. These rapidly circulating contents can even be featured in traditional media outlets. This process undermines public trust and hinders society's access to accurate information. Preventing disinformation in the media is possible through media literacy, strengthening verification processes, and promoting ethical journalism.

New Media and the Future of the Press

The press industry has undergone a profound transformation due to technological advancements. The traditional media model is being replaced by a more flexible, interactive, and digital-based structure. This shift not only changes how news is presented but also reshapes the relationships between production and consumption. New media refers to this transformation resulting from the digitalization of press activities, encompassing its social, legal, and ethical dimensions.

Impact of Social Media on the Press

Social media platforms have enabled direct participation by individuals in the processes of news production, sharing, and commentary, breaking the monopoly of traditional press. Platforms like Facebook, X (formerly Twitter), Instagram, and TikTok have become primary news sources for many individuals. As a result, press organizations are forced to be more active on digital platforms, with strategies like adjusting news formats to fit social media algorithms and making headlines more attention-grabbing. However, social media also brings challenges such as the spread of misinformation, clickbait journalism, and disinformation.

Citizen Journalism

Citizen journalism refers to the collection and sharing of information by individuals without professional journalistic training, using technological tools. With smartphones, social media, and live-streaming apps, ordinary citizens can capture and share events in real time. This development has allowed alternative information sources to emerge, especially in areas where traditional media has limited access or during crisis situations. However, citizen journalism raises concerns about insufficient verification processes, source reliability, and a lack of ethical responsibility. Despite these issues, this trend contributes to the strengthening of participatory media.

Content Production with Artificial Intelligence

Artificial intelligence (AI) technologies are increasingly being used in news production. Applications like automated text generation, data-driven news creation, content recommendation systems, and voice-based news reading are transforming the workflow of media organizations. Some news websites, particularly in fields like economics, sports, and weather, use AI-generated content, producing news quickly and without human intervention. Additionally, AI algorithms analyze reader behavior to provide personalized content.

^{An image representing media outlets (Created by AI.)}