The British Museum was founded in 1753 with the transfer of Hans Sloane’s collection to Parliament and opened to the public in London in 1759 as the world’s first national and public museum. From its inception, it aimed to present human history, cultures, and knowledge of nature within a universal framework in line with the values of the Enlightenment.
Today, with more than six million annual visitors, the museum is among the most visited institutions in the world. While it stands out with its identity as a universal museum, it is also at the center of debates on restitution and ownership, as a significant part of its collections was acquired through colonialism, war, and practices of appropriation.
British Museum (Unsplash)
History
The British Museum was founded in 1753 when physician and naturalist Sir Hans Sloane bequeathed his collection of approximately 71,000 objects to the British Parliament. An Act of Parliament ensured that the collection would be preserved for the public benefit. Montagu House in London was designated as the museum’s first home, and it was opened to the public on 15 January 1759. In this respect, the museum is regarded as the world’s first free and public museum.
As visitor numbers increased, Montagu House soon proved insufficient, and in 1823 a new building in the Greek Revival style was constructed by Sir Robert Smirke. In 1857, the Round Reading Room was added, establishing the museum as an important center for scholars. During the same period, the collection expanded with significant acquisitions such as the Elgin Marbles (Parthenon sculptures), the Rosetta Stone, and Assyrian reliefs. Many of these works were obtained through imperial expansion, the spoils of war, and the practice of partage.
In 1897, the Benin Bronzes, looted during the Benin Expedition, entered the museum’s collection, becoming one of its most controversial holdings. In the early 20th century, Sir Aurel Stein’s expeditions in Central Asia brought the Dunhuang manuscripts and archaeological finds to London. While these acquisitions enhanced the diversity of the collection, they also intensified debates surrounding colonialism and looting.
The British Museum Act of 1963 restructured the institution’s governance. In the latter half of the 20th century, new policies were introduced for the conservation and display of the collections. In 2000, the Queen Elizabeth II Great Court, designed by Norman Foster, was opened, expanding exhibition spaces and increasing visitor capacity.
Queen Elizabeth II Great Court (Unsplash)
Architectural Features
The first building of the British Museum was Montagu House, constructed in the late 17th century. Designed in the French Baroque style, it was used as an exhibition space from the museum’s opening in 1759. However, with the increasing number of visitors and the expanding collection, Montagu House soon became inadequate.
Montagu House (Rawpixel)
In 1823, a new building designed by Sir Robert Smirke was constructed, and it is regarded as one of the most significant examples of the Greek Revival style. On the exterior, classical colonnades, triangular pediments, and a symmetrical layout stand out. The museum’s north façade, with its 44 Ionic columns, evokes the appearance of an ancient temple. Inside the building, spacious galleries, high ceilings, and windows admitting natural light improved the conditions for display.
The Round Reading Room, completed in 1857 and designed by Sydney Smirke, was added to the museum’s architecture. With its circular plan, iron framework, and vast dome, it reflects the engineering achievements of the period. Serving researchers for many years, the reading room became the workplace of numerous thinkers, including Karl Marx and Virginia Woolf.
Reading Room (Rawpixel)
In 2000, the Queen Elizabeth II Great Court, designed by Norman Foster, became the museum’s most striking modern intervention. Covered by a glass roof, this courtyard was transformed into the largest enclosed square in Europe, creating a central space that regulates visitor circulation. At its heart, the Round Reading Room was preserved and seamlessly integrated with the modern design.
Today, the architectural character of the British Museum reflects a multilayered identity, combining its 18th-century Baroque legacy, 19th-century classical style, and 21st-century contemporary additions. Looking ahead, the museum also plans further architectural transformations, including the renovation of the Western Range and the sustainability-focused Energy Centre Programme.
Collections
The collections of the British Museum comprise approximately eight million objects, representing different periods and cultures of human history. Among its most renowned departments is the Ancient Egyptian collection, which features the Rosetta Stone, statues, mummies, and artifacts from daily life. The Ancient Greek and Roman collections are notable for the Elgin Marbles from the Parthenon, as well as sculptures, pottery, and examples of coinage. The Mesopotamian collection includes Assyrian palace reliefs, finds from Babylon and Ur, and cuneiform tablets.
Elgin Marbles (flickr)
The Asian collections encompass a wide range, from Chinese bronzes, ceramics, calligraphy, and paintings to Indian sculpture and Buddhist art. The Dunhuang manuscripts, brought from Central Asia, are among the most significant and contested works in this collection.
Within the African collections, the bronze plaques and sculptures taken from the Kingdom of Benin in 1897 stand out, alongside other masks and examples of textiles. The collections from the Americas consist of the archaeological and ethnographic heritage of Indigenous communities.
African Collection (flickr)
In the Islamic art collection, Ottoman İznik ceramics hold a prominent place, accompanied by examples of glass, metalwork, and calligraphy. The European collections extend from Medieval and Renaissance art to the treasures of Sutton Hoo and artifacts from the Viking period.
The museum’s numismatic collection of coins and medals is also extensive. All of these departments are made accessible to wide audiences not only through exhibitions in London but also via international loans and digital access programs.
Ottoman Collections
The British Museum holds a significant number of objects of Ottoman and Anatolian origin. In the “Islamic World” galleries, highlights include a sword belonging to Sultan Selim III, tiles brought from the Çinili Hamam in Istanbul, a work by Mimar Sinan, ceramic pieces donated after the death of the collector John Henderson, as well as various objects donated or acquired by Augustus Wollaston Franks, one of the museum’s early curators.
İznik Ceramics (AA)
In addition, archaeological finds of Anatolian origin also occupy an important place in the museum. Among the highlights of this collection are the bronze head of Aphrodite discovered in Gümüşhane and the statue of King Idrimi unearthed in Hatay. The galleries also display notable works such as the remains of the Mausoleum at Halicarnassus brought from Muğla, the Lion of Knidos, and the Nereid Monument from Xanthos.
Halicarnassus (AA)
Controversies and Criticisms
The collections of the British Museum have long been the subject of criticism due to acquisitions made during the colonial era and the contested means by which many objects were obtained. Works such as the Parthenon Marbles, the Rosetta Stone, the Benin Bronzes, the Maqdala collection, and the Dunhuang manuscripts removed from Central Asia are at the center of ownership disputes and restitution claims. Greece has long demanded the return of the Parthenon sculptures to Athens; Egypt has requested the repatriation of the Rosetta Stone; and Nigeria has made formal efforts to secure the return of the Benin Bronzes.
Turkey has also been a party to these debates. Through the Ministry of Culture and Tourism’s Department for Combating Smuggling, letters were sent to the museum via the Ministry of Foreign Affairs following reports of missing objects, requesting information on the status of items in the collection and filing restitution claims. Among the notable examples in this context are the bronze head of Aphrodite discovered in Gümüşhane, the statue of King Idrimi found in Hatay, tiles from the Çinili Hamam in Istanbul, and a sword belonging to Sultan Selim III.
In 2023, reports that artifacts had been stolen or lost from the museum’s storage intensified these debates. It was revealed that around 2,000 items had gone missing, some of which were sold online. Curator Peter Higgs was dismissed, and Museum Director Hartwig Fischer resigned. These developments sparked strong criticism regarding the institution’s security and ethical responsibilities.
China, meanwhile, has emphasized that much of the collection was acquired “through improper and immoral means,” demanding the return of nearly 23,000 objects from the Shang, Zhou, Wei, and Jin dynasties. Ghana, India, and Ethiopia have likewise reiterated their formal restitution requests. The British side, however, maintains that the objects are better preserved in London, were brought with permissions at the time, and contribute to the international promotion of the source countries through their display.
Within this framework, while the British Museum continues to assert its identity as a universal museum, the conditions under which objects were acquired, ongoing restitution claims, and recent security failures place it at the center of criticism from both the international public and academic circles.
