Building Elements

Building elements are the fundamental components that define a building’s structural system, spatial organization, performance against environmental influences, and aesthetic qualities. Therefore, the correct design, specification of appropriate materials and dimensions, and proper implementation according to standards are decisive for the integrity and functional safety of the structure.

Architecture and structural engineering disciplines base the design of building elements on criteria such as material properties, load-bearing capacity, thermal and acoustic insulation performance, resistance to moisture and fire, and long-term behavior under use. Within this framework, a building’s structural safety, functional performance, and aesthetic character are directly dependent on the harmonious integration of its elements and the correct application of technical details in accordance with standards.

Classification of Building Elements

Building elements are examined in two main categories according to their function and level of structural contribution: load-bearing elements (rough construction) and finishing elements (fine construction). This classification provides a systematic approach to defining both the structural integrity and the final usable form of a building.

Load-Bearing Elements (Rough Construction)

Load-bearing elements form the primary structural system that safely transfers the building’s own weight, live loads during use, and external forces such as earthquakes and wind to the ground. These elements are the foundational components that ensure the structural integrity of the building.

• Foundations: They constitute the primary load-bearing element that directly contacts the ground and initiates load transfer. Foundations receive all loads from the superstructure and distribute them in accordance with the ground’s bearing capacity. Proper foundation design plays a decisive role in preventing structural risks such as settlement, bending, and cracking.

• Columns: They are the vertical load-bearing elements of a building. They transfer loads from beams and slabs directly to the foundations. The dimensions, layout, and material properties of columns are fundamental factors determining structural safety.

• Beams and Lintels: They are horizontal load-bearing elements. Beams transfer loads from slabs and walls to columns. Lintels are positioned above window and door openings to direct loads from these openings to the adjacent walls.

• Walls: Depending on their function, they can be either load-bearing or partition. Load-bearing walls, especially in masonry structures, transmit the loads they carry directly to the foundations. Partition walls are used to divide spaces and do not carry structural loads.

• Slabs: They are horizontal building elements that separate floors and transfer loads from their surfaces to the structural system via beams or walls. They define the areas where occupants live or work.

• Stairs: They are load-bearing elements that provide vertical circulation between floors. They are typically designed in conjunction with columns, beams, or walls and contribute to the building’s structural system.

• Roofs: They form the upper covering of the building and provide protection against external elements such as snow, rain, wind, and sunlight. Roof systems transfer loads to walls or columns and also contribute to thermal and waterproofing performance.

Finishing Elements (Fine Construction)

Finishing elements are components that do not directly contribute to the building’s load-bearing system but determine its usability, comfort, safety, and aesthetic qualities. These elements are typically applied after the rough construction is completed.

• Doors and Window Frames: They enable passage between spaces and visual interaction with the external environment. They enhance indoor comfort by contributing to thermal, acoustic, and air insulation.

• Finishes: They are the final layer materials applied to floor, wall, and ceiling surfaces. They provide aesthetic appearance while protecting surfaces against wear, moisture, or impact.

• Railings and Parapets: They are protective elements used for safety on elevated areas such as stairs, balconies, and terraces. They also provide aesthetic contribution to the architectural integrity of the building.

• Insulation Systems: They provide protection against environmental factors such as water, moisture, heat, and sound. Appropriate insulation systems contribute to sustainable building design by improving energy efficiency.

• Services: They are mechanical and electrical components that constitute the building’s functional systems. These include potable and wastewater, electrical, heating, ventilation, air conditioning (HVAC), and elevator systems.

• Paints and Plasters: They are protective and decorative coatings applied to wall and ceiling surfaces. They affect the visual perception of space while protecting surfaces from environmental effects.

The two main groups establish a balance between the static safety, functional efficiency, and aesthetic qualities of building design. The correct design and implementation of each building element directly affect the structure’s performance, lifespan, and user comfort.

Foundation and Soil Relationship

A building’s durability and longevity depend not only on the quality of its superstructure elements but also directly on the characteristics of the soil on which it rests and the selection of a foundation system suited to that soil. The soil that supports and safely distributes all building loads is referred to as the “bearing soil.” Before construction begins, soil investigations are conducted to determine the soil’s bearing capacity, settlement characteristics, groundwater level, and geotechnical behavior. These studies provide the necessary engineering data for selecting the appropriate type and depth of foundation.

Soils are generally classified as strong, medium, and weak (marshy):

• Strong soils have high bearing capacity and are suitable for direct foundation applications.

• Medium soils may require specific improvement or reinforcement measures.

• Weak or marshy soils require specialized engineering solutions such as pile foundations, soil injection, or drainage due to their low bearing capacity and high settlement risk.

The process of determining and marking the location of a completed building design on the site is called “layout.” This process ensures the accurate transfer of the building plan to the site and guarantees positional accuracy during construction.

Foundation Types

Foundation systems, determined according to soil conditions and building loads, are evaluated in two main categories based on how they transfer loads to the ground. Shallow foundations are preferred when strong soil is located near the surface. In these systems, building loads are transferred directly to the upper layers of the soil. Major types of shallow foundations include isolated (individual) foundations, continuous (strip) foundations, and raft (mat) foundations. Isolated foundations are typically arranged independently beneath columns; continuous foundations support multiple load-bearing elements along a single line; raft foundations unify the entire structure on a single slab surface to ensure even load distribution.

Deep foundations are used when strong soil is located far below the surface or when the existing soil’s bearing capacity is insufficient. In these systems, loads are transferred through various elements to deeper, more stable soil layers. Pile foundations, piles, and caissons belong to this group. Piles are long elements driven or cast into the ground to achieve high load capacity. Caissons are large-scale foundation elements constructed to reach solid strata, especially under water or weak soil conditions. They are categorized into open caissons, pneumatic caissons, and floating caissons depending on usage conditions.

Wall Systems and Materials

Walls are vertical elements in buildings that serve either as load-bearing or partitioning components depending on their function. They are classified into various groups based on material type, construction technique, and intended use.

Masonry walls are constructed by laying traditional materials such as natural stone, brick, or adobe with or without mortar. These walls serve as the primary load-bearing elements in masonry structural systems and transfer loads directly to the foundations.

Brick walls are formed by laying factory-made or hand-molded bricks with cement mortar. They are widely used as both load-bearing walls and interior partition walls. The production standards of the material directly affect the wall’s strength and thermal and acoustic insulation performance.

Lightweight block and aerated concrete walls are constructed using low-density, high-insulation building elements. Due to their light weight, these walls offer advantages in interior space partitioning without adding additional load to the structural system.

Panel walls are systems created by assembling prefabricated reinforced concrete or lightweight aggregate panels on site. They offer significant advantages in speed, quality control, and labor efficiency in prefabricated and modular building types.

Concrete and reinforced concrete walls are used in structures requiring high load-bearing capacity. These walls are commonly referred to as shear walls and play a critical role in resisting seismic loads, especially in multi-story buildings.

The portions filled with mortar between the bricks, stones, or blocks that form the wall are called joints. Joints affect both structural strength and aesthetic appearance. Depending on the application method, they can be finished in different types such as trowel joint, recessed joint, and protruding joint.

Prefabricated Building Elements

Prefabrication is a construction technology based on manufacturing building elements in controlled factory environments rather than on-site, and then transporting them to the site for assembly. This method is widely used in industrial and modular building systems as it ensures standardization, quality control, rapid assembly, and cost efficiency during production.

Prefabricated building elements consist of different components depending on the building type and purpose: columns and beams form the main load-bearing system. Columns carry vertical loads while beams are horizontal elements that transfer these loads to columns. The prefabrication process ensures that these elements are manufactured according to standards in terms of dimensions, strength, and surface quality. Beams can be designed in various types according to their function, such as primary beams, secondary beams, trusses, purlins, or crane beams.

Slab panels are used to construct floor slabs and form the horizontal planes of the building. Different cross-sections and production types are available, including TT slabs, hollow-core slabs, and U-slabs. These panels provide not only load-bearing capacity but also additional performance advantages such as lightness, thermal, and acoustic insulation.

Facades form the building’s outer envelope and provide protection against external environmental conditions. These elements also perform thermal and waterproofing functions in addition to aesthetic appearance. While material and surface properties vary according to building type, reinforced concrete, composite, and lightweight panel types are the most commonly used options.

The prefabrication system significantly reduces construction time, minimizes material waste, and ensures a safer and more predictable construction process.

Other Important Building Elements and Systems

In addition to load-bearing and finishing elements, various auxiliary and supporting components play a vital role in maintaining a building’s integrity, safety, and functionality. These elements ensure the harmonious operation of different building systems and contribute to preserving both structural and functional performance.

Chimneys are vertical ducts designed to safely expel smoke, contaminated air, waste, or service gases from buildings. They are categorized into types such as fire chimneys, ventilation chimneys, refuse chutes, and service chimneys according to their purpose. Each chimney type ensures the safe operation of its respective system and maintains indoor air quality. Material selection and cross-sectional dimensions are determined based on chimney type and usage conditions.

Expansion joints are structural gaps intentionally left in large-volume buildings or adjacent aligned structures to accommodate stresses caused by differential settlement, temperature changes, wind, and earthquakes. These joints allow building sections to move independently, reducing the risk of cracking, deformation, and structural damage. The width of expansion joints is calculated based on the building’s dimensions, soil characteristics, and regional climatic conditions.

Connection elements are small but critical components that securely fix main structural components to each other or to the building surface. Varieties such as saddle flanges, universal elbows, angled elbows, and duct connectors maintain the stability and integrity of load-bearing systems. These elements play an important role in both ease of installation and long-term durability of the system. Such components are typically invisible but indispensable for safety, durability, and user comfort.