Critical and analytical thinking is a multi-layered mode of thought that enables individuals to actively utilize their cognitive competencies in the processes of accessing, testing, and reconstructing knowledge. This mode of thinking can be defined not only as an individual cognitive skill, but also as an intellectual disposition that extends into social, ethical, and pedagogical contexts. In this regard, critical-analytical thinking entails a systematic examination of one’s own thoughts, beliefs, and arguments; the capacity to evaluate the views of others; and participation in knowledge production processes based on epistemic responsibility.
Traditionally emphasized within the Western intellectual tradition, the concept of critical thinking has also been explored in other systems of thought such as Eastern philosophy and Islamic legal theory. For instance, the classical Indian logical tradition (Nyāya-Sūtra) situates the processes of inquisitive reasoning at the foundation of epistemological reliability. In the Islamic intellectual tradition, the methodologies of jurisprudence (usūl al-fiqh) and legal reasoning (ijtihād) have rendered a critical-rational approach systematic in the interpretation of scriptural texts. In this sense, critical thinking has been inherently present across diverse intellectual heritages, yet the globalized contemporary context has necessitated its more systematic redefinition.
The role of critical thinking in education is significant not only in terms of academic achievement, but also in cultivating individuals’ social awareness, ethical sensitivity, and political consciousness. The perspective of critical pedagogy maintains that this mode of thought possesses not only cognitive but also transformative power. However, in some educational systems, this skill has been reduced to a superficial rhetoric, resulting in a form of “non-critical critical thinking” that is devoid of substantive content.
Critical Analytical Thinking (Leeloo The First)
Cognitive Foundations of Critical and Analytical Thinking
Critical and analytical thinking is based on complex cognitive processes that cannot be reduced merely to the collection and storage of information. This mode of thinking is shaped through the systematic utilization of mental functions and requires the coordinated operation of fundamental cognitive activities such as reasoning, comparing, categorizing, inductive and deductive thinking. This process enables individuals to elevate their intellectual production from the ordinary to a more structured, critical, and transformative form.
The development of such cognitive abilities is not solely related to intelligence level, but also to one’s capacity for awareness and meaning-making. In this context, concepts such as basīrah (insight) and ferasah (discernment) are not only treated within religious or ethical frameworks but are also considered indicators of cognitive awareness and depth of perception. Basīrah refers to an intuitive understanding that penetrates beyond surface-level phenomena, while ferasah is regarded as a manifestation of mental agility, the ability to establish interconnections, and strong reasoning skills. These two concepts point to the fact that thinking encompasses not only rational but also value-laden and intuitive dimensions.
It is evident that the intellect lies at the center of this mental process. However, the intellect in this context refers not merely to logical reasoning capacity, but to a holistic intellect encompassing moral awareness, aesthetic sensitivity, and existential responsibility. In this regard, within Islamic thought, reason (ʿaql) is not merely an instrumental tool for acquiring knowledge but constitutes a fundamental principle for understanding the revealed texts (naṣṣ) and making sense of life. Thus, critical analytical thinking, by centering reason, renders knowledge open to critique—not as a means of destruction, but as a constructive process.
Another cognitive foundation of critical analytical thinking is the concept of ḥikmah (wisdom). Ḥikmah entails not only the possession of wisdom but also the ability to judge accurately, to place things in their proper context, and to foresee consequences. A wise person is not only inclined toward what is right but also possesses the skill to choose the most appropriate course of action by considering variables such as time, place, and context. In this respect, ḥikmah represents the ethical and pragmatic dimensions of critical thinking.
Moreover, critical analytical thinking must be understood as a discipline that requires continuity. It is not the product of isolated moments of mental brilliance, but rather the outcome of repeated, internalized, and methodological thought practices. Thus, critical thinking is not merely a skill but the result of long-term intellectual cultivation, a philosophical attitude, and an epistemological responsibility. This, in turn, necessitates the transformation of one's thinking style into a way of life.
Theoretical Dimension of Critical Thinking: A Comparison Between Western and Eastern Traditions
A significant portion of discussions on critical thinking presupposes that this concept emerged as a Western-derived cognitive skill or pedagogical goal. However, when considered on both historical and conceptual planes, it becomes evident that critical thinking has also existed in established and systematic forms within Eastern intellectual traditions. One classical example of Eastern philosophy is the Indian logical tradition, particularly through the Nyāya-Sūtra texts, which laid the theoretical foundations of rational reasoning and epistemic reliability. This tradition constructed a system based on four fundamental sources of knowledge: perception, inference, comparison, and testimony. In this regard, the Eastern tradition positions critical thinking not merely as an outcome but as an epistemological process in itself.
Islamic thought, too, offers historical and systematic exemplars of critical thinking. The disciplines of fiqh (Islamic jurisprudence) and usūl al-fiqh (jurisprudential methodology) contain practices heavily reliant on rational reasoning and textual critique in the processes of interpreting legal texts (naṣṣ) and deriving new rulings through ijtihād (independent reasoning). Particularly in the methodology of fiqh, principles such as maṣlaḥa (public interest), qiyās (analogical reasoning), istiḥsān (juristic preference), and ḍarūra (necessity) enable a critical interpretive framework while maintaining fidelity to textual sources. Within this context, the jurist (faqīh) is not merely a legal practitioner but also an intellectual producer. Critical analytical thinking emerges as an integral component of the ijtihād process, responding to the necessity of reinterpreting religious texts in light of evolving social and historical conditions.
In contrast, in Western thought, critical thinking has gained prominence especially in post-20th-century educational philosophy and epistemology. However, this developmental trajectory has also revealed various formal and substantive shortcomings. These include the superficial teaching of critical thinking, the failure to interrogate foundational assumptions, and its reduction to merely cognitive techniques—issues which have prompted critiques of “non-critical critical thinking.” Within this framework, pioneering thinkers in critical pedagogy have emphasized that critical thinking should not be understood solely as a formal argumentative skill but as an ethical and political responsibility intertwined with social transformation.
Another significant distinction that has emerged in the Western tradition is the relationship between critical thinking and critical theory. Critical theory challenges the notion of objectivity in knowledge production and exposes the relationship between knowledge and power. This approach proposes a multilayered form of critique that takes into account not only the individual's intellectual capacity but also their social positioning. Therefore, critical thinking possesses not only an individual but also a collective and political dimension.
In conclusion, it should be noted that drawing a strict dichotomy between Eastern and Western traditions in regard to critical thinking would be misleading. In both traditions, critical thinking has been grounded and developed through different means but united in the shared pursuit of knowledge and truth. The divergence lies in their respective epistemological, ontological, and ethical foundations. In the East, intuition, wisdom, and holistic reasoning occupy a central position, whereas in the West, formal logic, argumentation, and methodological doubt are more dominant. Yet in both traditions, critical thinking serves a foundational role in enhancing human intellectual capacity.
Critical-Analytical Thinking in Islamic Thought
Islamic thought represents a deep-rooted tradition that places reason at its core and promotes critical intellectual activity. Within this tradition, critical and analytical thinking is not merely an individual competence but is also regarded as an extension of epistemological, ethical, and legal responsibility. The Islamic understanding of knowledge is not limited to its acquisition; it also involves the processes of processing, evaluating, internalizing, and correctly applying that knowledge. In this context, the concepts of ʿaql (intellect), baṣīrah (insight), firāsah (discernment), and ḥikmah (wisdom) constitute the foundational components that correspond to critical-analytical thinking in the Islamic framework.
Islamic legal thought, particularly through the discipline of fiqh (jurisprudence), has institutionalized critical thinking. Fiqh is defined as the knowledge of the practical and legal rulings (sharʿī and ʿamalī) that pertain to human actions in terms of what is beneficial or harmful. Acquiring this knowledge is not achievable through rote memorization alone; it requires processes of interpretation, analogy, evaluation, and deduction. The methodology of fiqh, or uṣūl al-fiqh, systematizes the mental operations used in these processes. Methods such as qiyās (analogical reasoning), istiḥsān (juristic preference), maṣlaḥah (public interest), and istiṣḥāb (presumption of continuity), used in understanding, interpreting, and applying naṣṣ (scriptural texts), are directly based on the principles of analytical reasoning. Thus, the tradition of fiqh represents an institutionalized form of critical-analytical thinking.
At the core of critical-analytical thinking in Islamic thought lies the concept of ḥikmat al-tashrīʿ (the wisdom behind legislation). This concept refers to uncovering the underlying purposes and objectives (maqāṣid) of legal rulings. The belief that rulings must be evaluated not only at the lexical level but also with their embedded purposes and wisdom necessitates a critical reading and interpretive approach. Such an approach encourages a multi-dimensional mode of thinking that does not merely adhere to the textual surface but also considers the social, historical, and individual contexts of the text.
In Islamic jurisprudence, the concept of ijtihād refers to the intellectual and methodological activity by which an individual derives rulings from legal evidences. This process requires a high level of attentiveness, comparison, filtration, and interpretation. For an ijtihād to be valid, the issue at hand must be evaluated from multiple perspectives, the relevant naṣṣ must be analyzed holistically, and the resulting ruling must be tested against public interest (maṣlaḥah). Therefore, ijtihād constitutes not only a theoretical but also a practical manifestation of critical thinking.
Another form that critical thinking assumes in the Islamic tradition is its relationship with hermeneutics. Although methodological differences exist between Islamic fiqh and Western-origin hermeneutics, both approaches rest on foundational cognitive processes such as meaning construction, interpretation, and contextualization. In Islamic law, the meaning of a text is not approached merely at the literal level but is considered in relation to context, purpose, and consequences. Therefore, the methodology of fiqh not only allows for but actively encourages critical-analytical thinking.
In Islamic thought, critical-analytical thinking is not merely a theoretical cognitive activity; it is also a responsibility that shapes individual behavior and social relationships. Quranic concepts such as “a heart that reasons” (qalbun yaʿqilu), “insightful vision” (baṣīrah), and “wise speech” (ḥikmah) point to an ethical form of thinking. This mode of thought guides the individual both in the production of knowledge and in the application of that knowledge to life. In this respect, critical thinking in Islamic thought is not only intellectual, but also a moral, legal, and social obligation.
Critical Analytical Thinking (Leeloo The First)
Critical Pedagogy and Social Transformation
The evaluation of critical and analytical thinking not merely as an individual cognitive competence but also as a tool for social transformation constitutes one of the central claims of critical pedagogy. Within this framework, critical pedagogy acknowledges the ideological nature of knowledge and rejects the notion of neutrality in educational processes. Education is not confined to the transmission of knowledge; rather, it functions as a domain in which values, worldviews, and power relations are either reproduced or transformed. Hence, the critical pedagogical approach defines education as a space where social inequalities are not perpetuated but questioned and reconfigured.
In this context, critical thinking provides the student not only with the ability to access knowledge, but also with the capacity to develop a critical stance toward it and reconstruct their own intellectual framework. However, this potential does not always manifest in practice. Educational policies, curricula, and teaching methods often produce structures that limit, rather than promote, critical thinking. This situation has been conceptualized as “non-critical critical thinking,” and has been criticized for reducing critical thinking to a mere technical skill, thereby stripping it of its transformative power.
Critical pedagogical approaches are grounded in the notion that the individual is not a passive recipient of knowledge, but an active producer and transformer of it. One of the core objectives of critical pedagogy is to cultivate students' awareness in their engagement with the world, encouraging them to question their own living conditions and to demonstrate agency in transforming those conditions. In this respect, critical thinking becomes not only a cognitive but also an ethical and political act. Education thus evolves into a process that fosters not only academic competence but also social consciousness and responsibility.
In relation to social transformation, another key proposition of critical pedagogy concerns the relationship between knowledge and power. Knowledge is always produced and circulated within specific contexts and for specific purposes. Therefore, critically evaluating knowledge also entails exposing the power relations embedded within it. The transformative power of critical thinking emerges precisely at this point: the individual who interrogates knowledge and its conditions of production becomes an autonomous subject capable of contributing to the reconstruction of social order.
The approach advocated by critical pedagogy is rarely accommodated within traditional educational structures. Students’ attempts to think and question in ways informed by their own lived experiences, cultural heritage, and social positioning are frequently suppressed or ignored. This reality demonstrates that pedagogical practices may appear critical in form, while remaining non-critical in substance. A genuinely critical pedagogical process demands not only that individuals engage in reflective thought, but that they actualize their thinking in life, establish a meaningful connection with the world, and reconstruct that connection through a transformative orientation.
Conceptual Map: What Does Critical-Analytical Thinking Require?
Critical and analytical thinking should be evaluated not merely as the mechanical application of a set of mental skills, but rather as a holistic form of competence encompassing various conceptual, cognitive, and ethical principles. For this mode of thinking to function effectively, certain foundational conditions must be met. These conditions not only render the thinking process systematic, coherent, and profound but also provide a clear conceptual framework for how knowledge is produced, evaluated, and applied.
The first pillar of this framework is the individual's epistemic responsibility. Critical thinking does not suffice with attaining knowledge alone; it also requires a constant awareness of the source from which the knowledge is obtained, how it is structured, and which assumptions it is based upon. In this regard, questioning assumptions is not merely a critique directed at the text or content but also entails a continuous reassessment of one’s own intellectual position. The concept of reflexivity, particularly emphasized in qualitative research, corresponds methodologically to this kind of awareness.
The second essential requirement of critical thinking is argumentative competence. The validity of thought is not solely determined by the information it contains, but also by how that information is structured, justified, and defended. At this point, reasoning methods—especially induction, deduction, analogy, and causal connections—gain significance. Concepts such as qiyas, istinbat, and maslaha in the methodology of Islamic jurisprudence provide historical and practical examples of argumentative thinking in the Islamic intellectual tradition. The reevaluation of a ruling within its context reveals that thinking is not only related to the production of knowledge but also to the act of judgment.
The third foundational component of this mode of thinking is an ethical consciousness. Critical thinking should be regarded not only as a rational activity but also as a moral one. The concepts of hikmah (wisdom), firasah (discernment), and basirah (insight) are noteworthy in this context. These concepts demand not only correct thinking from the individual but also just, appropriate, and measured decision-making. Especially in Islamic thought, hikmah, as the practical dimension of reason, denotes acting accurately in the transformation of knowledge into action. Thus, critical thinking is evaluated as being not only about understanding knowledge but also about using it appropriately.
Another requirement is the ability to develop multiple perspectives. Every mode of thinking originates from a specific context. Therefore, singular and absolute claims to knowledge contradict the very nature of critical thinking. Taking opposing views into account, questioning one’s own position, and being open to alternative explanations are principles emphasized both in the jurisprudential tradition and in critical pedagogical approaches. In this respect, the culture of ijtihad offers a critical thinking practice that encourages plurality and interpretative openness.
For critical-analytical thinking to be effective, it requires mental continuity and thinking discipline. This type of thinking is not the result of a momentary mental alertness but of a sustained intellectual effort. Transforming thinking into a habit and a way of life ensures that the individual bears responsibility not only towards knowledge but also towards truth. It is well understood that the functional implementation of critical thinking in education, research, and social life is only possible through such mental continuity.
