Curriculum

Curriculum is an Arabic-derived term and the plural of müfred, meaning “singular, distinct, individual.” Although used in different contexts across various disciplines, it consistently conveys the meaning of “singularity, distinctness, or uniqueness.” In this sense, it is a multifaceted term found in both religious sciences and modern educational systems.

Curriculum in Modern Education

In modern educational systems, curriculum refers to a systematic planning framework that encompasses the knowledge, skills, attitudes, and values students are expected to acquire; the sequence and methods through which these are taught; the materials used; and the evaluation processes. This concept, commonly referred to as curriculum in Western languages, includes both learning objectives and the learning processes themselves.

Curriculum is not merely the content that teachers teach and students learn; it is also a multilayered structure aimed at fostering individuals’ social, cultural, intellectual, and moral development. Therefore, it encompasses not only academic knowledge but also character education, civic awareness, contribution to society, and active learning.

Purpose and Types of Curriculum

The primary purpose of curriculum is to enhance student learning by achieving educational goals and objectives. Curriculum reflects the fundamental values and shared beliefs of societies and has a dynamic structure that mirrors the perspectives of decision-makers.

Curriculum can be classified into different types based on application, objectives, and content:

• Intended Curriculum: Represents the official content that an educational institution expects to teach or has defined as learning objectives within the education system.
• Achieved Curriculum: Refers to the skills, knowledge, and dispositions students effectively acquire as a result of their education.
• Official (Written or Explicit) Curriculum: The curriculum determined by authoritative institutions in a country and limited by formal legislation. It is structured according to the ideal model of human and societal development desired for future generations.
• Ignored Curriculum: Includes topics that are not taught in school, either deliberately or unintentionally. It may convey the message to students that these topics are unimportant in education or society.
• Hidden or Implicit Curriculum: Used to describe social norms and behavioral expectations that are not directly taught or written. It encompasses attitudes, values, and beliefs learned indirectly through participation in school activities.
• Social or Societal Curriculum: The curriculum shaped by informal socializing agents such as family, peer groups, and mass media.
• Rhetorical Curriculum: Composed of ideas presented by policymakers and school authorities.
• Learned Curriculum: Encompasses the concepts and content that students actually learn and remember.
• Electronic Curriculum: Refers to subjects learned through the internet and electronic media. It emphasizes the development of media literacy skills.
• Undifferentiated Curriculum, Basic Education Curriculum, Student-Centered, Child-Centered, Society-Centered, Knowledge-Centered, or Eclectic Curriculum: Variants of curriculum types based on different focal points and approaches.
• Philosophical Approaches: Different philosophical movements such as idealism, realism, perennialism, essentialism, empiricism, existentialism, constructivism, and reconstructivism influence curriculum approaches.

Curriculum Design and Development Processes

Curriculum design is the conscious, purposeful, and systematic process of organizing content and learning activities within a specific field to achieve educational goals. This design serves as a powerful tool for educators to shape what students learn, how they learn it, and what they can achieve by the end of their learning.

Key Elements of Curriculum Design

The curriculum design process generally includes four fundamental elements, which are interrelated and addressed in a cyclical structure:

• Goals: Defined as the qualities to be developed in students. These may include knowledge, abilities, emotions, attitudes, skills, and interests. Goals address the question “Why are we educating?” and form the core of the curriculum, guiding the formulation of all other elements. Goals can be classified as distant, general, and specific.
• Content: Involves constructing a subject area framework drawn from the knowledge produced by relevant scientific fields, aligned with the program’s goals. Content is typically organized under subtopics listed under unit or learning area headings. The concrete realization of this planned structure takes the form of a textbook.
• Learning-Teaching Process: Constitutes the procedural dimension of the educational program. This dimension seeks to answer the question “How do they learn?” by organizing learning experiences that enable students to acquire the intended characteristics. The shift in Turkish educational programs since the 2000s from a “What should we teach?” orientation to a “How do they learn?” orientation exemplifies this paradigm shift. Learning experiences are designed to promote active student participation.
• Assessment: Determines whether the initially established objectives have been achieved at the end of instructional activities. It seeks to answer the question “How effective is the implemented educational program?” This component involves efforts to determine the quality, effectiveness, and degree of alignment with expectations. Unlike traditional assessment methods, contemporary approaches emphasize alternative methods focused on what students can do in real-life contexts.

Types of Curriculum Design

Curriculum design is the process of purposefully, intentionally, and systematically organizing instructional blocks within a course or educational program. This process enables teachers to plan their instruction and aims ultimately to enhance student learning. It also ensures that learning objectives are coherent and complementary across educational levels, such as the transition from primary to secondary school. Three main approaches to curriculum design exist:

Subject-Centered Curriculum Design

This design is structured around specific academic disciplines such as mathematics, biology, or history. It focuses on the subject rather than the individual and defines what should be studied and how. Core curriculum programs standardized across schools and countries are examples of this approach. In this model, teachers are typically provided with a predetermined list of topics to teach. Its main disadvantage is its tendency to overlook students’ individual learning styles and differences, which can negatively affect student motivation and engagement.

Student-Centered Curriculum Design

This approach places the individual needs, interests, and goals of each student at the center. It acknowledges that students are not uniform and adapts instructional plans accordingly. It aims to empower students and grant them autonomy in choosing aspects of their learning process. Differentiated instruction is central to this model, offering students choices among assignments, learning experiences, or activities. While this approach motivates students, it is highly labor-intensive for teachers due to the need to develop customized materials and plans for each learner.

Problem-Centered Curriculum Design

A subtype of the student-centered approach, this design focuses on teaching students how to approach and solve specific problems. Students confront real-life issues, thereby developing the ability to apply their knowledge to practical situations. This model enhances the relevance of the curriculum to daily life and encourages creative and innovative thinking. However, like subject-centered design, it may not always adequately account for diverse learning styles.

Stages of Curriculum Development Process

Curriculum development is not merely planning; it is a comprehensive and cyclical process grounded in philosophical, sociological, and psychological foundations. This process generally includes the following steps:

1. Needs Analysis: The curriculum development process begins with identifying the current situation and needs. The expectations and requirements of society, individuals, sectors, and relevant fields are determined. This stage answers the question “Why do we need such a curriculum?” and involves analyzing stakeholder expectations alongside the current situation.
2. Defining Objectives: Based on the needs analysis, the general and specific objectives of the curriculum are clearly formulated. These objectives define what knowledge, skills, and attitudes students are expected to acquire.
3. Selecting and Organizing Content: The information, concepts, and topics necessary to achieve the defined objectives are selected and arranged in a logical sequence. The content must be current, relevant, and appropriate to the students’ developmental level.
4. Planning the Learning-Teaching Process: It is determined how the content will be presented to students and which methods and techniques will be used. In this stage, strategies are designed to encourage student participation, accommodate diverse learning styles, and support active learning.
5. Designing Assessment and Evaluation Processes: Appropriate assessment tools and methods are developed to determine the extent to which students have achieved learning outcomes. Both process and product evaluation are important.
6. Implementation (Piloting): This stage involves testing the prepared curriculum on a small scale in selected schools or classrooms. These pilot implementations are crucial for identifying feasibility, shortcomings, and strengths of the curriculum. Teachers are typically provided with necessary training before implementation.
7. Evaluation and Improvement: The results of pilot implementations are analyzed. It is assessed whether the curriculum has achieved its goals, whether it is effective, and what problems have arisen. Based on this evaluation, necessary revisions and improvements are made to the curriculum.
8. Dissemination: The improved curriculum is implemented widely across the country or within a specific region. Teacher training and continuous support are of great importance at this stage.
9. Continuous Monitoring and Development: After implementation, the curriculum must be continuously monitored and updated in response to changing conditions, new scientific findings, and evolving societal needs. This is a requirement for maintaining the curriculum’s dynamic and living nature.

History and Development of Curriculum in the Turkish Education System

The curriculum in Türkiye has undergone significant transformations from the Ottoman period to the Republic. During the Ottoman era, instruction in sıbyan mektepleri and medreses was teacher-centered rather than based on a modern curriculum. In the 17th and 18th centuries, scholars such as İshak Tokadî, Saçaklızâde Mehmed Maraşî, and Erzurumlu İbrâhim Hakkı authored works that organized medrese curricula. During the Tanzimat period, modernization efforts accelerated with the addition of Western languages, history, and geography to the Ottoman education system. During the reign of II. Abdülhamid, subjects such as mathematics, physics, and chemistry were incorporated into medrese curricula.

Transition from the Ottoman Empire to the Republic

Ottoman modernization efforts aimed to transfer Western thought and create a new model of individual and society through education. These goals were pursued through the programs of newly established modern educational institutions. The most significant debates of this period centered on the purposes of education and the qualities expected to be instilled in individuals.

With the founding of the Republic, major work was carried out on educational programs between 1924 and 1930. The fundamental philosophy of these programs was to instill the values and characteristics of the Republican regime in the new generation. During this period, John Dewey, who developed exemplary educational practices in the United States, was invited to Türkiye and contributed to educational practices through his reports and recommendations. The influence of Dewey’s progressive approach became evident in programs developed in the 1930s and 1950s.

Following the proclamation of the Republic, curricula were reorganized within a national framework. The adoption of the Tevhîd-i Tedrisat Kanunu in 1924 and the establishment of the Talim ve Terbiye Heyeti marked a turning point in standardizing curricula. The 1924 curriculum reform emphasized Turkish, life sciences, mathematics, history, and religion; Arabic and Persian curricula were eliminated following the adoption of the Latin alphabet. Starting in 1935, principles such as republicanism, nationalism, and secularism were integrated into the curriculum. In the 1950s, religion courses were reintroduced into the curriculum and Imam-Hatip schools were opened.

Transition to Modern Program Development Approaches (1950s and Beyond)

In the Turkish education system, the term “educational program” was generally understood as a list of subjects and topics until the 1950s. Although this understanding gave way to a more modern concept of “educational program” after the 1950s, work until the 1960s remained largely limited to establishing class schedules and determining subject names and weekly teaching hours in schools.

The genuine development of curriculum development as a scientific field in Türkiye began in academia after the Ministry of National Education’s initiatives. Following the return of scholars such as Selahattin Ertürk and Fatma Varış, who received graduate education in the United States in the 1950s, scientific research on curriculum development emerged within Middle East Technical University, Ankara University, and Hacettepe University.

Recent Developments and Innovations (1980s and Beyond)

In the 1980s, curriculum development efforts regained prominence under the leadership of the Ministry of National Education. In 1982, a curriculum model was developed in collaboration with universities, and on February 14, 1984, the Talim ve Terbiye Kurulu decided that educational programs should include dimensions of objectives, behaviors, processes, and evaluation.

In the 1990s, the Ministry of National Education, with support from the World Bank through the National Education Development Project, advanced curriculum development processes with assistance from foreign experts. During this period, more systematic models were developed by the Directorate of Educational Research and Development (EARGED).

In the field of vocational and technical education, significant innovations were introduced through the METGE Project initiated in the 1990s. Through this project:

• Modular programs responsive to local needs were developed.
• Efforts were made to support female employment and strengthen collaboration with industry.
• Professional standards were integrated into educational programs, incorporating modern techniques and technologies.
• New programs were piloted in Müfredat Laboratuvar Okulları (MLO) projects, with errors corrected before widespread implementation.

In the 2000s, various projects were implemented as part of Türkiye’s European Union accession process. Within this context, the constructivist and learner-centered approach became prominent in educational programs enacted in 2005.

However, although the Turkish education system theoretically adopted the progressive philosophy during the Republican period, in practice, essentialist and perennialist approaches centered on teachers and curriculum dominated. This situation led to insufficient attention to student needs and the widespread use of rote and passive learning methods.

Türkiye Century Education Model

The Türkiye Century Education Model is a new curriculum draft presented to public opinion by the Ministry of National Education in 2024 and scheduled for phased implementation beginning in the 2025–2026 academic year in preschool, first grade of primary school, fifth grade of middle school, and ninth grade of high school. This model is the product of a 10-year long-term effort shaped through 20 workshops, over 1,000 meetings, and contributions from more than 1,000 education stakeholders, including academics and teachers.

The draft was submitted to public opinion and subsequently revised based on criticisms, suggestions, and recommendations received from the Presidency of the Talim and Terbiye Council to reach its final form. The model aims to restructure the Turkish education system with a flexible, skill-focused, and holistic approach aligned with Türkiye’s national, spiritual, and human values.

Core Features of the Model

The Türkiye Century Education Model aims to cultivate “competent and virtuous” individuals who possess national consciousness, moral integrity, and a commitment to doing what is beneficial and beautiful for their nation and humanity, with harmony among body, mind, heart, and soul. The model was prepared based on the general objectives and principles of Law No. 1739 on the Foundations of National Education and is built upon fundamental principles such as ensuring equal educational opportunities, placing individual differences at the center, and promoting interdisciplinary approaches. Education is viewed as a right guaranteed for everyone throughout life, with the concepts of knowing and responsibility presented as complementary elements.

Holistic Education Approach

The model embraces a holistic education approach that views the student as a whole—intellectually, socially, emotionally, sensorially, physically, and morally. This approach focuses on preserving and developing innate human qualities, forming personal integrity, and fostering character development. An equitable learning environment is designed to eliminate potential disadvantages, ensuring that students are not disadvantaged due to their beliefs, identity, or socioeconomic status.

Simplified and Skill-Focused Content

Based on the finding that the current curriculum is approximately twice as heavy as its international counterparts, the new curriculum has been simplified by 35%. This simplification is grounded in a skill-focused approach suited to contemporary conditions where access to information is easier, promoting deep learning. Student learning outcomes are integrated with subject-specific skills to provide a conceptual and functional learning experience that moves away from rote memorization.

Emphasis on Turkish Language

Teaching Turkish is one of the model’s core policies. Turkish is seen as a tool for understanding societal communication, transmitting cultural elements across generations, and cultivating aesthetic linguistic awareness. Effective and correct use of Turkish is a common goal across all subjects, with priority given to developing language skills. Particularly in Turkish language courses, fundamental changes have been made with a focus on the four language skills: listening, speaking, reading, and writing.

In primary school, eight mandatory themes have been established to ensure implementation consistency, and learning objectives have been reduced from 289 to 80 for simplification. In early reading and writing instruction, sound groups have been reorganized based on usage frequency and writing ease—for example, children begin by learning words closely related to their immediate environment such as “an,” “ana,” and “anne.” In middle school, grammar instruction has been redefined using a functional grammar approach as “language structures,” emphasizing the contribution and functionality of language structures in texts rather than rote memorization. In high schools, literature workshops have been introduced to develop students’ language skills through text analysis and creative production.

Subject-Specific Skills

The curriculum defines subject-specific skills to promote interdisciplinary and higher-order thinking abilities:

• Mathematics: Five skills: mathematical reasoning, problem solving, mathematical representation, working with data, and using mathematical tools/technology.
• Science: Thirteen skills including scientific observation, classification, hypothesis formation, experimentation, and scientific inquiry.
• Social Sciences: Seventeen skills including time perception, historical empathy, geographic inquiry, philosophical reasoning, and critical sociological thinking.

Virtue-Value-Action Model

The Virtue-Value-Action Model, introduced for the first time in this model, aims to naturally instill values within the educational process. Justice, respect, and responsibility are identified as core values; values such as sensitivity, compassion, diligence, and patriotism have been integrated into programs aligned with the goals of “peaceful individuals, families, and society” and “sustainable environment.”

Literacy Skills

Systemic literacy has been incorporated into the curriculum for the first time to encourage students to determine their own learning methods and foster self-directed learning. Nine sub-literacy types—information, digital, financial, visual, cultural, citizenship, data, sustainability, and art literacy—are introduced in a spiral structure from preschool onward.

Extracurricular Activities

Interdisciplinary and beyond-discipline activities such as sports, arts, clubs, volunteer activities, camps, competitions, exhibitions, and conferences enable students to discover and develop essential life skills.

Process-Oriented Assessment

The model adopts a process-oriented assessment approach rather than an outcome-oriented one. A balance is achieved through diagnostic, formative, and summative assessment methods. This approach aims to continuously monitor the quality and effectiveness of the learning process.

School-Based Planning

Flexible planning opportunities are provided according to local and regional needs, supporting collaborative decision-making by teachers. Tenth grade is dedicated to career selection and planning, with vocational guidance and career counseling activities conducted within this framework.

Revised Programs

The model includes the following subjects across preschool, primary, middle, and high school levels:

• Primary and Middle School: Science (grades 3–8), Life Sciences (grades 1–3), Mathematics (grades 1–8), Turkish (grades 1–8), Human Rights, Citizenship and Democracy (grade 4), Social Studies (grades 4–7), Turkish Revolution History and Atatürkism (grade 8), Religious Culture and Moral Knowledge (grades 4–8).
• High School: Biology, Geography, Physics, Chemistry, Mathematics, Turkish Language and Literature, Religious Culture and Moral Knowledge (grades 9–12), Philosophy (grades 10–11), History (grades 9–11), Turkish Revolution History and Atatürkism (grade 12).
• Elective Courses: Updated elective course programs by the Directorate of Religious Affairs.

Innovations in Turkish Language Courses

Turkish language courses have been restructured around the four language skills (listening, speaking, reading, writing):

• Primary School: Implementation consistency has been ensured through eight mandatory themes. Sound groups have been reorganized based on ease of use. Writing space has been simplified (1 cm width, single line spacing). Online reading and digital media elements have been added to the curriculum.
• Middle School: Language skills have been supported through workshop activities (listening/viewing, reading, production). The number of themes has been reduced from eight to six. New text types such as hypermedia, infographics, and vlogs have been introduced. The concept of language structures has replaced traditional grammar instruction.
• High School: Literature workshops promote text analysis and creative production. Each grade adopts four themes and a full-text reading approach. Two literary works and one critical film analysis are mandatory each term.