David with the Head of Goliath, painted by Caravaggio between 1606 and 1610, most likely in Naples, is an oil painting renowned for its dramatic and psychological intensity. Depicting the biblical story of David and Goliath from the Old Testament, the work shows the young shepherd David holding the severed head of the giant warrior Goliath after having slain him. However, what distinguishes this painting is the absence of triumphant celebration: David’s face is filled with compassion, sorrow, and a sense of duty. Goliath’s head is depicted with grotesque drama—and notably, it bears the face of Caravaggio himself.
Grotesque, in art history, refers to figures with exaggerated, unsettling, or distorted aesthetic qualities. In this painting, Goliath’s head is portrayed grotesquely—bloodied, with a bruised forehead, unfocused gaze, and lifeless expression. The artist’s choice to depict himself in this state has been interpreted not only as a representation of physical death but also as a symbol of spiritual collapse. Particularly, the dullness in the right eye and the decomposed appearance of the face visually represent both physiological and psychological decay.
Historical Context
Michelangelo Merisi da Caravaggio was accused of killing a man named Ranuccio Tomassoni on May 29, 1606, and was forced to flee Rome. Although the details of the incident remain unclear, Caravaggio had previously been involved in various street brawls and legal troubles. After a death sentence was issued against him, he first went to Paliano, then Naples, followed by Sicily and Malta. It is believed that the painting was created during his second stay in Naples (1609–1610) and sent to Cardinal Scipione Borghese, nephew of Pope Paul V, in an attempt to obtain a papal pardon. However, the artist died in Porto Ercole before he could return to Rome or receive the pardon.
The work was listed in the Borghese Collection inventory in 1613 and gradually became one of the most prominent pieces in the collection. In 1902, the entire collection was transferred to the Italian state, and the painting is still on display at the Galleria Borghese.
The Story of David and Goliath in the Scriptures
The battle between David and Goliath holds powerful symbolic weight in both Jewish and Islamic traditions. Known as "King David" in Judaism and "Prophet Dawud" in Islam, he is regarded as a divinely chosen leader and sovereign.
Verse 2:251 of Surah Al-Baqarah presents the young shepherd David’s killing of the tyrannical warrior Goliath not only as a military victory but also as a manifestation of divine destiny, justice, and wisdom. This event marks a historical turning point, shaping both David’s personal destiny and the socio-political course of the Israelites.
According to the narrative, a major battle erupts between the Israelites and the Philistines. David, not a warrior but a shepherd, is sent by his father to deliver news to his brothers at the front lines. Upon arriving, he hears Goliath—a massive warrior—issuing a challenge for single combat. King Saul (Talut) wishes to respond but is held back by his soldiers. David volunteers and asks what reward will be given. Upon learning that Saul has promised his daughter and great wealth, he requests permission to fight.
David’s recounting of how he previously fought off a lion and a bear to protect his sheep demonstrates his trust in God and inner courage. Saul gives him armor, but the young man finds it too cumbersome and removes it. Armed only with a few stones gathered from the valley and a sling, he enters the battlefield. After exchanging words with Goliath, he strikes his forehead with a stone, felling him, and then severs his head with Goliath’s own sword.
From this moment, the tide of the battle turns. Goliath’s death demoralizes the Philistines, and the Israelites win the battle. Saul keeps his word: David is made commander and marries Saul’s daughter. However, as the people’s admiration for David grows, Saul becomes jealous and plots to kill him. David, in contrast, never harms Saul and chooses to distance himself.
In the Qur’an (Al-Baqarah, 2:251), the event is recounted as follows: “By Allah’s will, they defeated them, and David killed Goliath. Allah gave him kingship and wisdom and taught him what He willed...”
This verse portrays the event as a divine decree in which prophethood and kingship are united.
David with the Head of Goliath, Caravaggio. (Galleria Borghese)
Caravaggio’s Interpretation: Narrative Elements Reflected in the Painting
Caravaggio’s David with the Head of Goliath captures the dramatic, psychological, and metaphysical layers of the sacred narrative. Unlike traditional iconography, David is not shown as a triumphant hero but as an introspective, melancholic, and contemplative figure. This depiction suggests that he is not merely a warrior but the bearer of divine justice and moral reckoning. The face of Goliath is that of Caravaggio himself. By portraying himself as both victim and executioner, the artist intensifies the metaphorical power of the scene.
The painting’s iconography omits the sling, stones, and other narrative elements. Instead, it conveys the outcome of the event through the severed head and sword alone. This simplification amplifies the dramatic effect and focuses on the final moment of divine justice. The inscription on David’s sword, “Humilitas occidit superbiam” (“Humility kills pride”), encapsulates the moral of the story. It symbolizes how the arrogant force represented by Goliath is defeated by the faith and simplicity embodied by David.
Caravaggio interprets the story less as a literal narrative and more as an inner reckoning. David’s gaze reflects not triumph but the weight of responsibility and the enactment of a moral execution before God. The painting captures not just a historical event but the intersection of sacred metaphor and individual conscience.
Composition and Psychological Depth
The position of David’s right arm resembles that of the classical Greek statue Apoxyomenos (depicting an athlete cleaning himself). This gesture also parallels the executioner’s arm movement in Caravaggio’s Salomè painting in London. Art historians interpret these compositional similarities as visual motifs that support the portrayal of David not as a heroic figure but as someone reluctantly carrying out a necessary act.
David’s emotional state—characterized not by joy but by pity and burden—has been seen as a reflection of Caravaggio’s inner turmoil. Some scholars interpret David as the artist’s superego, representing moral and ethical conscience, while Goliath symbolizes his sinful and condemned ego. By depicting himself in both figures—as the executed and the executioner—Caravaggio visualizes a kind of internal tribunal, suggesting a psychoanalytic representation of his own inner judgment.
Exhibitions and Copies
Throughout the 20th century, the painting has been displayed in numerous prestigious museums worldwide:
- The Metropolitan Museum of Art (New York)
- The National Gallery (London)
- Museo Nacional del Prado (Madrid)
- Szépművészeti Múzeum (Budapest)
- Scuderie del Quirinale (Rome)
- J. Paul Getty Museum (Los Angeles)
- And ultimately, back to the Galleria Borghese (Rome)
There are currently seven known copies of the work—one in the Gemäldegalerie in Kassel, one in the Museu Historico da Bahia in Brazil, and five in private collections. The original painting remains on display at the Galleria Borghese in Rome.
The Artist: Michelangelo Merisi da Caravaggio (1571–1610)
Caravaggio is considered one of the most influential and original painters of Italian Baroque art. Throughout his artistic career, he rejected the idealized figures of tradition and depicted ordinary people as sacred figures. His models often came from the streets or everyday life; emotions such as fatigue, pain, fear, and peace were directly reflected in their faces and bodies.
His most distinctive technique—chiaroscuro, or more specifically tenebrism (extreme contrast between light and dark)—used intense light against a dark background to create a three-dimensional and emotionally rich composition. For Caravaggio, light served not only as physical illumination but also as a tool for moral, psychological, and divine emphasis. This technique influenced not only Italian but also European Baroque painting, inspiring artists such as Rubens, Rembrandt, and Velázquez.
Caravaggio’s life was as dramatic and conflicted as his paintings. Legal troubles, exile, sudden outbursts, and deep solitude formed the psychological backdrop for the dark intensity found in his works. David, with the Head of Goliath, in this context, serves as a summary of his artistic, ethical, and personal journey.
