Digital surveillance refers to the monitoring of individuals, groups, or societies through digital technologies, involving data collection and analysis. This growing field, driven by the widespread adoption of the internet, smart devices, and artificial intelligence, is utilized by governments, corporations, and individuals. It is closely linked to the tension between privacy, security, and control.

The Historical Development of Digital Surveillance

The history of digital surveillance dates back to the early days of the internet. In the 1990s, with the commercialization of the internet, companies began tracking user behavior. For example, cookies were introduced by Netscape in the U.S. in 1994 and used to monitor web browsing habits.

From the 1990s onwards, as global communication networks expanded, governments also broadened their intelligence programs. For instance, the ECHELON program, conducted by the U.S. and the U.K., was used to analyze international phone calls and internet traffic.

The 2000s marked the transformation of digital surveillance into a mass phenomenon. Following the 9/11 attacks in 2001, the U.S. enacted the Patriot Act, which enabled extensive surveillance, including wiretapping and email monitoring. With the rise of social media (Facebook in 2004, Twitter in 2006), companies systematically collected data for advertising purposes. For example, in the mid-2000s, Google scanned user emails on Gmail to deliver targeted ads. In 2013, Edward Snowden’s NSA leaks exposed that millions of people’s communications were being monitored through the PRISM program, revealing that even German Chancellor Angela Merkel’s phone had been tapped.

The 2020s signify a new phase with the advancement of technology. China’s social credit system was fully implemented in 2020, tracking and scoring citizens based on activities ranging from shopping to traffic behavior. During the COVID-19 pandemic, South Korea used mobile phone data for contact tracing, demonstrating how surveillance was legitimized for health reasons. The rise of smart city projects (such as IoT sensors in Singapore) and the Internet of Things (IoT) further illustrate how surveillance has become deeply integrated into daily life.

Types and Technologies of Surveillance

State surveillance is conducted in the name of national security. In the U.K., GCHQ’s Tempora program intercepted internet cables in the 2010s, analyzing millions of data packets. CCTV systems convert physical spaces into digital data; as of 2023, London was estimated to have over 600,000 cameras. Additionally, India’s Aadhaar system tracks over a billion people using biometric data, justified as an identity verification measure but raising privacy concerns.

Corporate surveillance is carried out by private companies for commercial purposes. Amazon records and analyzes user conversations through Alexa devices; in 2019, it was revealed that employees listened to these recordings, sparking backlash. In China, Tencent monitors user messages on WeChat for both targeted advertising and government data sharing. Cookies, tracking pixels, and scripts form the backbone of corporate surveillance; for instance, if a user visits a shoe website in the U.S., Meta repurposes this data for advertising.

Individual surveillance is conducted by individuals or small groups. In the U.S., a 2021 divorce case revealed that one spouse had installed spyware on the other's phone, which was later used as evidence in court. On social media, voluntary surveillance occurs when individuals monitor each other’s posts—for example, secretly viewing someone’s Instagram stories. In Japan, a case in 2020 reported that a stalker used a drone to follow a woman, highlighting how technology can be exploited for personal surveillance.

Privacy and Ethical Debates

Digital surveillance has significant implications for privacy. Snowden's leaks revealed that the NSA was tracking Wi-Fi users at airports in Canada, sparking global outrage over the intrusion into individuals' private lives. In Europe, the General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR) was enacted in 2018, requiring companies to obtain user consent before collecting data. However, allegations surfaced in 2020 that Facebook had violated these regulations. Even when individuals are aware of being monitored, they often cannot fully grasp the scope and use of their data, creating an asymmetric power dynamic.

Corporate surveillance has further deepened ethical concerns. The 2018 Cambridge Analytica scandal exposed how digital data can influence political processes. Data from 87 million Facebook users was exploited for targeted political manipulation, raising alarms about privacy violations and threats to democratic processes. This scandal demonstrated how individuals could be subjected to political influence without their consent. In China, allegations that ByteDance analyzed TikTok user data have put young users' privacy at risk, leading to an investigation in the U.S. in 2022. The concept of "surveillance capitalism" suggests that corporations exploit privacy for profit, reducing individuals to mere data sources.

Use for Security and Control

Digital surveillance is widely used by governments and corporations for security-related applications. Governments have developed advanced monitoring systems to combat crime and maintain public order. Facial recognition technology, in particular, has become a crucial tool for identifying suspects. The private sector also employs surveillance systems to ensure internal security and improve operational efficiency. In workplaces, monitoring employees' digital activities is implemented to boost productivity. For instance, Amazon's tracking systems for warehouse workers illustrate how surveillance has become institutionalized in modern workplaces. However, such practices raise privacy concerns and ethical criticisms. Continuous monitoring of employees can create psychological pressure and negatively affect the quality of the work environment.

In authoritarian regimes, digital surveillance is primarily used for control. China's social credit system strictly monitors individuals' daily lives to regulate social behavior. Similarly, some governments use digital tools to track and suppress opposition movements. These expanding surveillance networks, justified by security concerns, have sparked intense debates regarding individual freedoms and human rights.

Social, Psychological, and Legal Aspects of Digital Surveillance

Digital surveillance has led to profound changes in individual and societal behavior patterns, while also having extensive psychological and legal consequences. Individuals aware of being monitored tend to act more cautiously and self-censor. Social media platforms, in particular, limit public interactions, indirectly suppressing freedom of expression. The constant feeling of being watched increases anxiety and insecurity, threatening psychological well-being.

On a societal level, surveillance has reshaped power dynamics and created new inequalities. Those who control data analytics and AI-powered monitoring tools have leveraged these technologies to reinforce their dominance. Disadvantaged groups, in particular, have been disproportionately targeted by intensive surveillance policies, posing a significant challenge to social justice. However, efforts to defend privacy rights indicate growing resistance against these systems and an accelerated search for alternative solutions.

Defining the boundaries of digital surveillance and safeguarding individual rights require a globally coordinated legal framework. The data-sharing practices between governments and technology companies highlight the absence of international standards, making it essential to establish comprehensive data security policies. The expansion of digital surveillance necessitates a continuous reassessment of the balance between security and freedom. As technological advancements accelerate, developing transparent and accountable surveillance policies that protect individual rights has become increasingly important.