Ephesus is located in Western Anatolia, within the boundaries of the Selçuk district in the province of İzmir, Türkiye. With its earliest traces of settlement dating back to the Neolithic period, the city has been influenced by various civilizations throughout history, including the Hittite, Greek, Roman, Byzantine, Seljuk, and Ottoman periods. With a history spanning approximately 9,000 years, Ephesus served as one of the most important port cities of the ancient world and played a central role both culturally and commercially.
Ephesus reached its peak in terms of urbanization, architecture, and religious structure particularly during the Hellenistic and Roman periods. Monumental buildings such as the Library of Celsus, the Great Theatre, the Terrace Houses, the Temple of Hadrian, and the Temple of Artemis are legacies from these eras. The city also holds great significance in early Christianity; the House of the Virgin Mary and the Basilica of St. John reflect this spiritual heritage. Listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 2015, Ephesus is protected as an archaeological treasure of universal value due to its cultural landscape, religious history, and architectural richness.
Ephesus Ancient City (Photo: Türkiye Kültür Portalı)
Historical Background
The historical development of Ephesus dates back approximately 9,000 years in Western Anatolia. The earliest evidence of settlement can be traced to the Chalcolithic Age (5th millennium BCE). This early settlement developed around Ayasuluk Hill, a defensible location. In the Late Bronze Age, the city was known as Apasa, the capital of Arzawa, and from the Iron Age onward, it gained significance as a sacred site. From the 11th century BCE, it became home to the cult of Artemis. Following the Greek migrations, it was inhabited by Aeolians, Leleges, and Lydians. In the 7th century BCE, the Temple of Artemis was rebuilt with the support of Croesus, King of Lydia.
During the Hellenistic Period, Ephesus came under the rule of Lysimachus around 300 BCE, after the wars among the Diadochi of Macedonian origin. A new city was founded between Mount Koressos (Bülbül Dağı) and Mount Pion (Panayır Dağı). The city was also known as Arsinoe, after Lysimachus’s wife. The new settlement was built according to the Hippodamian grid plan, with city walls stretching about 9 kilometers. The lower part of the city featured the Commercial Agora and the Theatre, while the upper city included the State Agora, Bouleuterion, and Prytaneion.
In 133 BCE, with the bequest of the Kingdom of Pergamon to Rome, Ephesus became part of the Roman Empire’s Province of Asia. Under Roman rule, the city became the capital and metropolis of the province. It flourished as a port city, both economically and commercially. Major construction projects from this period include the Library of Celsus, the Temple of Hadrian, the Theatre, and the Terrace Houses. This golden age reached its height in the 1st and 2nd centuries CE. With the spread of Christianity, Ephesus also gained religious importance. The missionary activities of St. Paul and the Council of Ephesus held in 431 CE made the city a key center for the Christian world.
During the Byzantine Period (4th–13th centuries CE), the city continued to develop around Ayasuluk Hill (Theologos Hill). The Basilica of St. John was built during this time. As the harbor and central city were gradually abandoned, the population shifted toward Ayasuluk. This era was also marked by earthquakes, plagues, and political transformations. From the 7th century onward, settlement patterns became more defensive, and the city's commercial importance declined.
In the Seljuk and Ottoman periods, Ayasuluk Hill revived. In the 14th century, the area came under the control of the Aydınids, and significant buildings such as the İsabey Mosque were constructed. However, the ancient city of Ephesus was completely abandoned. Archaeological excavations began in the 19th century, bringing the city back to light. Thanks to the contributions of the Austrian Archaeological Institute, systematic excavations have revealed and restored major structures such as the Library of Celsus, the remains of the Temple of Artemis, and the Terrace Houses.
İsabey Mosque (Photo: T.C. Selçuklu Kaymakamlığı)
Excavations
Systematic archaeological excavations in Ephesus began in the second half of the 19th century. The first scientific excavations in the area were conducted between 1863 and 1874 by British architect John Turtle Wood, aiming to locate the Temple of Artemis. In 1869, Wood reached the temple’s marble foundations at a depth of approximately 7 meters; however, due to the absence of expected findings, the project concluded in 1874.
After a brief campaign led by David G. Hogarth in 1904–1905, systematic and long-term excavations were initiated in 1895 under the direction of the Austrian Archaeological Institute. Led by Otto Benndorf, these early efforts focused on key areas of the city, such as the Temple of Artemis, the harbor agora, and gymnasium complexes.
From 1926 onward, Josef Keil continued excavations at locations including the Basilica of St. John (near the Cave of the Seven Sleepers) and the Great Gymnasium. Under Franz Miltner’s direction in 1954, new focus areas included Curetes Street, the Temple of Hadrian, and the Basilica of St. John. In 1960, a new team under Fritz Eichler began systematic excavations of the Terrace Houses, which continued from 1969 under Helmuth Vetters, who also led the reconstruction of the Library of Celsus.
Since 1998, excavations have been led by archaeologist Friedrich Krinzinger. In recent years, the scope of the work has expanded to include not only the uncovering of monumental structures but also restoration, conservation, and urban historical research. As of 2008, excavations involved 228 specialists from 12 countries. Work at Çukuriçi Höyük confirmed that the region had been continuously inhabited since the Neolithic period. Geophysical surveys that year also provided insight into the evolution of the city’s harbor system. Architectural analyses of the theater supported reconstructions of the stage building and marble staircases.
The excavation project is interdisciplinary in nature, encompassing not only archaeological work but also cultural heritage preservation. Since Ephesus was inscribed on the UNESCO World Heritage List in 2015, principles such as conservation, documentation, restoration, and sustainability have become integral to the excavation program.
Turkish Museums-Ephesus
Architectural Structures
Ephesus is one of the richest ancient settlements in terms of architectural heritage from antiquity. Due to its long settlement history, architectural layers from different periods coexist throughout the city. Urban planning, particularly during the Hellenistic and Roman periods, reveals clear traces of the Hippodamian grid system. The city was divided into two main sections—Lower and Upper City—with buildings serving commercial, political, religious, and cultural functions arranged in a well-organized layout.
The Processional Way, running along Curetes Street, served as the main axis, lined with monumental structures and public spaces. The Terrace Houses, located on the slopes of Mount Koressos, represent elite residential architecture, featuring mosaic floors, frescoed walls, peristyle courtyards, central heating systems, and plumbing—all elements of Roman domestic culture. These structures offer insights into the lifestyle of the Ephesus elite.
One of the most striking monuments of Ephesus, the Library of Celsus, holds both functional and symbolic significance. Built in the 2nd century CE by the son of a Roman governor, it functioned as both a mausoleum and a library. Its two-story façade, architectural proportions, and symmetrical composition embody Roman architectural ideals. The interior featured niches for scrolls and a burial chamber. As Ephesus became a Roman metropolis, such buildings reflected the city’s intellectual and administrative prominence.
Library of Celsus (Photo: Türkiye Kültür Portalı)
The Great Theatre is among the oldest structures in the city. Originally built during the Hellenistic period and expanded in Roman times, it could seat up to 25,000 people and hosted not only performances but also public assemblies. Its stage building has three levels, and the orchestra is semicircular. Restoration has partially rebuilt the seating and staircases. More than a performance venue, the theater functioned as a vital part of civic life.
Theatre (Photo: Türkiye Kültür Portalı)
Another iconic structure is the Temple of Artemis, originally constructed in the 6th century BCE. Destroyed and rebuilt multiple times due to fires and looting, it was reconstructed in the 4th century BCE. Known for its colossal dimensions and numerous columns, it was considered one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World. The temple served not only religious purposes but also economic and social functions, with surrounding areas used for commerce and ritual.
Ephesus had two main agoras: the Lower Agora (Commercial Agora), located near the harbor and surrounded by stoas, served as a marketplace; and the Upper Agora, also known as the State Agora, housed buildings such as the Bouleuterion (council house) and Prytaneion (administrative center). These spaces formed the core of Ephesus’s political and administrative operations. The eternal flame in the Prytaneion indicates a civic cult dedicated to the gods.
The Temple of Hadrian, located on Curetes Street, was dedicated to Roman Emperor Hadrian. Designed in the Corinthian order, its friezes depict mythological scenes related to the founding legends of Ephesus. Bases beneath its columns are inscribed with the names of Roman emperors. These decorative elements served both artistic and political purposes.
During the Byzantine period, the architectural focus of the city shifted to Ayasuluk Hill. The Basilica of St. John, with its cruciform plan and monumental entrance, was built here. Nearby stands the İsa Bey Mosque, constructed during the Aydınid period and considered a fine example of Anatolian beylik architecture. These two buildings represent the city’s religious transformation across Christian and Islamic periods.
Finds
Among the most notable discoveries is the Nike relief, located along Curetes Street. It depicts the goddess of victory, Nike, in mid-flight with flowing garments and wings. Although its original placement is uncertain, it is believed to have been part of an arch. The high-relief technique, dynamic form, and anatomical detail demonstrate the sophistication of Ephesus's sculptural art.
Nike Relief (Photo: Türkiye Kültür Portalı)
The four female statues on the façade of the Library of Celsus represent idealized Roman virtues: Sophia (Wisdom), Arete (Virtue), Ennoia (Thought), and Episteme (Knowledge). The originals are preserved in Vienna and reflect the philosophical meaning behind the building.
Excavations at the Terrace Houses have yielded wall frescoes, mosaics, household objects, and inscriptions that provide insights into the daily life of Ephesus’s wealthy citizens. Mosaic themes include mythological scenes, geometric patterns, and botanical motifs. Representations of figures such as Apollo, Dionysus, Medusa, and Heracles illustrate how Greco-Roman iconography permeated urban life.
In and around the Great Theatre, various marble statue fragments, inscribed architectural blocks, theatrical mask reliefs, and stage decorations have been uncovered. Inscriptions found in the theater’s upper archives shed light on social organization, festivals, and events held in honor of the Roman emperor.
Near the city walls and necropolis areas, burial finds include grave stelae, sarcophagi, funerary offerings, glass unguentaria (ointment bottles), ceramic vessels, and bronze mirrors. These artifacts contribute to our understanding of burial customs and personal belongings in ancient Ephesus.
