Erikson's theory of psychosocial development is a developmental psychology theory that does not reduce the personality development of the individual to childhood and treats it as a lifelong process. The theory recognizes that human development is shaped by both biologically based inborn characteristics and the social environment in which the individual lives. Erikson explains the formation process of personality through eight basic developmental stages; each of these stages is defined by a specific psychosocial conflict that the individual faces.
According to the theory, each developmental stage builds on the accumulation of previous stages. Each stage contains a specific crisis that the individual must resolve, and the resolution of this conflict, either positively or negatively, determines the individual's psychosocial maturity. A successfully overcome developmental stage provides the individual with the necessary psychological equipment to cope with the next stage. However, developmental failure at any stage can be compensated in later periods when appropriate social support and environmental conditions are provided.
The eight stages defined by Erikson are as follows: Basic Trust versus Insecurity (infancy), Autonomy versus Shame and Suspicion (early childhood), Initiative versus Guilt (play age), Diligence versus Inadequacy (school age), Gaining Identity versus Identity Confusion (adolescence), Intimacy versus Isolation (young adulthood), Productivity versus Inefficiency (adulthood) and Self-Integrity versus Hopelessness (old age). The nature of the conflicts experienced in these stages directly affects the individual's sense of self and the relationships he/she establishes with his/her environment.
The theory has expanded the influence of psychodynamic theories in developmental psychology by dealing not only with the biological development of the individual but also with the process of psychological adaptation within the social context and has an important place among socially oriented developmental theories.
Eight Stages in Erikson's Psychosocial Development Theory
Basic Trust versus Insecurity (Infancy)
The period of basic trust vs. distrust covers the first year after birth and is considered as a basic stage in the development of a healthy personality. In this period, the baby is dependent on its environment and caregivers. Meeting the infant's basic needs in a consistent and loving manner in a timely manner ensures the development of positive attitudes towards the world and people. The basic sense of trust acquired in this process forms the basis for the individual to develop trust both towards himself and others. When a sense of trust develops, the baby can display positive emotions such as hope and harmony towards the environment. The mother's calming and consistent approach plays a decisive role in the establishment of these feelings. Otherwise, babies whose needs are not met regularly cannot develop a basic sense of trust and mistrust takes its place. This may limit the development of positive experiences such as bonding, trusting and getting help in social relationships. If the necessary trust cannot be established, ‘withdrawal’, the basic pathology of infancy, emerges. Surviving the period in a healthy way is considered to be an important psychological structure that will contribute to the formation of identity in later life.
Autonomy versus Shame and Suspicion (Early Childhood)
This period covers the age range of approximately 2-3 years and is characterized by the child's muscular development and increased psycho-motor skills. During this period, the child makes attempts to control his/her body and movements; he/she wants to explore his/her environment and act independently. Supporting the child in this process of discovery enables him/her to gain autonomy and develop positive emotions such as competence, self-worth and self-confidence. However, if the child is hindered, constantly interfered with or humiliated in every behavior, they may start to doubt their own abilities and develop feelings of shame. This may increase the child's tendency towards dependency and negatively affect his/her self-worth.
In this period, if the conflict of shame and doubt against autonomy is successfully resolved, ‘willpower’, an important power, is gained. When the conflict is not successfully resolved, ‘compulsion’, the main pathology of the period, may emerge. A healthy passage of the period is of fundamental importance for the child's personality development.
Initiative versus Guilt (Play Age)
The period of guilt versus entrepreneurship covers approximately 3-6 years of age and represents the age of play when children develop a sense of initiative. In this period, children begin to explore their environment more freely with the influence of motor and language development, their imagination develops and they identify with various roles and try to try these roles both in their play and in real life. Children define themselves through their actions, which is a fundamental part of identity development. When initiative behaviors are supported by parents and the environment, the child develops assertiveness, self-confidence and goal-oriented behaviors. However, if the child's attempts are constantly criticized or prevented, the child begins to feel guilty about his/her actions. In the long run, this may lead to a personality structure with a high tendency towards guilt and a reluctance to take initiatives. 'Timidity', which is the main pathology of the period, may be experienced. While supporting the child's initiatives, appropriate boundaries should also be set.
When the conflict between initiative and guilt is resolved in a healthy way, ‘purpose’, which is the basic power specific to this period, develops. In this way, the child begins to perform his/her behaviors in line with certain goals; he/she creates his/her own goals and tends to make efforts to achieve these goals.
Diligence versus Inadequacy (School Age)
During this age period (6-12 years), the child starts to show more interest in both social and academic areas, and his/her social environment expands with teachers and other adult role models in addition to peers. In order to acquire the knowledge and skills valued in the society in which he/she lives, the child should be inclined to work and be productive in these areas. During this period, the child is very open to learning and develops in areas such as taking tasks, being disciplined and being productive. They tend to produce in cooperation with other children.
At this age, the child usually starts school. The desire to succeed is combined with an effort to stand out among peers. Social roles are more clearly understood. The main acquisition of the period is the feeling of ‘diligence’. The child develops this feeling by being appreciated as they succeed. However, children who are not sufficiently supported or who face expectations above their capacity may develop feelings of inadequacy and inferiority. It is of great importance that parents and teachers give children a sense of achievement by giving them appropriate responsibilities. This approach supports the child's development as a self-confident and productive individual.
Gaining Identity versus Identity Confusion (Adolescence)
Adolescence (12-21 years) is a transitional period between childhood and adulthood. In this process, the individual tries to cope with uncertainties about adult roles as well as physical changes. Adolescents try to form their identity around the question “Who am I?”. In this period, the individual becomes aware of his/her mental and physical development and tends to develop a suitable identity for himself/herself. He/she identifies with people he/she likes through identification and imitation. Questioning different belief systems and lifestyles is part of a natural identity crisis.
Adolescents may be attracted to heroic figures, ideologies, religious values and the opposite sex. Indecisions and uncertainties may lead young people to turn to groups of friends. In this process, the individual tries to find a balance between the rules learned in childhood and the values of adulthood. In order to develop a healthy sense of identity, adolescents need to be supported by their environment. Allowing new roles to be tried out contributes to the development of a positive identity. Individuals who cannot go through this process in a healthy way may experience identity confusion. Conflict in this period contributes to the development of ‘commitment’. When the conflict is not resolved successfully, ‘role denial’, which is the main pathology of this stage, may occur.
Intimacy versus Isolation (Young Adulthood)
It is the developmental process that covers the age range of 21-30 after the individual gains his/her identity during adolescence. In this stage, the individual enters into a more direct interaction with social life based on the identity foundations acquired during childhood and adolescence. The limited peer relationships of adolescence are replaced by more comprehensive social relationships and integration with society.
In this developmental period, issues such as marriage, friendship and work life begin to take an important place in the individual's life. The individual's ability to establish trusting and sincere relationships with other people indicates that this period is overcome in a healthy way. However, if this process is experienced negatively, the individual may experience difficulties in interpersonal relationships. As a result, the individual may feel psychological loneliness, withdraw from society and experience a sense of abandonment. The main strength of young adulthood is ‘love’ and the main pathology is ‘exclusion’.
It is possible for a young adult to go through this period in a healthy way not only with the individual's own efforts but also with the support of his/her family and other individuals around him/her. In a social structure based on love and respect, conflicts specific to this period can be resolved constructively. In this context, both personal and social development of the individual is supported.
Productivity versus Inefficiency (Adulthood)
This period covers the middle adult years (30-60 years). In this stage, the individual is characterized by productivity and creativity. The individual can demonstrate productivity by having children, raising children, guiding future generations in society, and creating products in the fields of science and art.
Overcoming the conflicts experienced during this period in a healthy way enables the individual to develop a sense of productivity. However, if this process progresses negatively, the individual may feel inefficient and stagnant. This conflict between productivity and stagnation paves the way for the emergence of ‘interest’, the main strength of the period. On the other hand, the main pathology of the period is ‘rejectionism’. In this case, the individual may develop an egocentric attitude, thinking that only he or she and the group to which he or she belongs are important, which distances him or her from taking responsibility for the development of others.
Self-Integrity versus Hopelessness (Old Age)
This is the last stage of the psychosocial developmental periods covering the old age years (after 60 years of age). This stage is shaped by the conflict between the satisfaction of a productive life and the uneasiness of having spent a life devoid of meaning. In this developmental stage, the individual evaluates what he/she has experienced in the previous seven stages. The individual who has gone through the previous stages in a healthy way reaches self-integrity. However, people who cannot cope with the conflicts in these periods may experience feelings of hopelessness in old age.
The lack of the opportunity to live a different life or to realize what has not been done in the past may trigger a sense of hopelessness in this period. The person may feel regret about his/her life and desire to live it all over again, in a different way. When the conflict of this period cannot be resolved, the individual may experience a loss of hope and a fear of death.
In order to overcome this conflict between self-integrity and hopelessness in a positive way, it is important that the individual has successfully resolved the problems in previous developmental stages. This inner struggle prepares the ground for the development of ‘reason’ (wisdom), which is the main power of the period. However, if this conflict remains unresolved, the individual may develop the basic pathology of the period, ‘contempt’. The individual may see both himself/herself and others in the helplessness that comes with old age and may develop a devaluing perspective in reaction to this.
Individuals who have successfully completed their developmental stages can accept death as they approach the end of their lives. The older person who has integrated his/her self is happy to see that what he/she has produced in the past is being utilized by younger generations.
