Forgery in Islamic Period Manuscript Works

In the Islamic world, forgery has consistently appeared as a phenomenon, both in early periods and in subsequent centuries. Manuscript works have witnessed forgery in various forms, particularly in hat art, book collecting, and religious texts.

Works produced by master calligraphers through transcription and copying serve as guides for students.

Forgery in Early Manuscript Works

A phenomenon indicating that forgery was known from the early days of Islam is, according to Arabic sources, the order given by the Abbasid caliph Harun al-Rashid to use papyrus instead of paper in official correspondence due to the difficulty of erasing written text on paper. Earlier rulers had already preferred papyrus over parchment for their correspondence. These measures demonstrate that forgery was recognized in early periods and perceived as a threat.

One reason for the relative rarity of forgery in medieval manuscripts was the use of isnād certifications. Isnād certifications ensured the authenticity of a text through a chain of transmission while also serving as a tool to determine the authorship and date of a work. Moreover, many texts were memorized by large segments of the population, providing a form of social protection against distortion or forgery. Alongside this, cases are documented where religious and political motives led to the production of forged manuscripts in early Islamic times. According to Salahaddin al-Munajjid, some mushafs attributed to Caliph Uthman ibn Affan and Ali ibn Abi Talib have been identified as products of later centuries rather than the early period. F. Déroche explains these misattributions as resulting from a mistaken assumption that the script styles were older than they actually were.

Methods and Motives of Forgery

Forgery in manuscripts has been carried out through numerous methods. The most common include the alteration of dates and provenance records. In manuscripts attributed to major calligraphers, methods such as modifying isnād certifications or signature stamps, or adding false information about the number of folios, were widespread. At times, forgery manifests as misattribution of texts to incorrect authors. For example, Ghazali works exist that are falsely attributed to Ibn al-Arabi and Suyuti.

Forgery is particularly common in calligraphy. Among works claimed to be by Ibn al-Bawwab and Ya‘qub al-Musta‘simi, forged ferāq inscriptions and counterfeit reproductions are among the methods used. Furthermore, admiration for these calligraphers’ works has led to an increase in the number of forged copies. The boundary between imitation and forgery is especially blurred in calligraphy, since imitation is an essential element of calligraphic training, expressing respect for one’s master. Methods for detecting forgery include Modern analysis, filigree examination, ink studies, and Carbon-14 dating techniques. These methods play a crucial role in identifying forgery by revealing the chronological characteristics of materials used in manuscripts.

Forgery and Collecting

Book collecting has been another incentive for forgery. Manuscripts bearing the signatures of renowned calligraphers attracted great interest among collectors and generated high profits through counterfeit versions. For instance, Hasan b. Abdullah es-Sayrafî added forged authentication notes to manuscripts to enhance their value. Additionally, Ibn Bādīs’s work Umdat al-Kuttāb includes sections on how to artificially age parchment, demonstrating how such knowledge was applied in forgery.

Examples of forgery have been found in collections around the world. For instance, mushafs attributed to Ibn Muqla in the McGill Collection have been linked to unfounded claims. Similarly, certain manuscripts in the French National Library have been identified as containing forged provenance records and incorrect attributions.

In private collections, commercial gain motives have played a significant role in the production of forgeries. Methods such as scraping off worn sections of a page and replacing them with folios taken from other manuscripts were frequently employed.

Forgery in Illumination and Painting

Not only texts but also single-page paintings and illuminated folios have been subject to forgery. Such works have become prime targets for forgers motivated by commercial interests. For example, the 10th/16th-century painting “The Seated Scribe,” attributed to Bihzād, and drawings attributed to Rizā al-Abbasid have frequently been reproduced as forgeries and circulated in the art market. The high value of single folios has led to damaged leaves being repaired by attaching fragments from other manuscripts or adding forged pages.

In more modern times, as illuminated folios and drawings have gained value, altered works have attracted greater attention. Digital imaging techniques and high-resolution scanning have aided in detecting such forgeries.

Works described as “palace manuscripts,” noted for their fine craftsmanship, have attracted attention in every era.

Forgery and Misattributions in Mushafs

Mushafs attributed to important figures such as Caliph Uthman ibn Affan and Ali ibn Abi Talib are not from their time but date to later periods. According to Salahaddin al-Munajjid, these misattributions stem from religious and political concerns. Moreover, the perception that the scripts used in these mushafs appear older than those of later periods has strengthened claims of forgery. This situation casts doubt on the authenticity of manuscripts claimed to originate from the earliest Islamic periods.

Forgery in manuscripts has persisted as a significant issue in Islamic cultural heritage. Methods of forgery applied across diverse fields—chronology, calligraphy, collecting, and artistic works—have complicated the identification of authentic original works. However, research into the causes and methods of forgery holds great importance for the preservation of this heritage.