The Göreme Archaeological Site is a rock-cut settlement located approximately 13 kilometers from the center of Nevşehir province and about 2 kilometers from the town of Göreme. Situated in the Cappadocia region, where volcanic tuff layers have been eroded by wind and water, the area features a distinctive geomorphology that enables the coexistence of natural and cultural elements within its settlement fabric. Numerous structures carved into the rock formations indicate the site’s varied use throughout its historical timeline.
Göreme was opened to visitors in 1967 and was inscribed on the UNESCO World Heritage List in 1985 under the name “Göreme National Park and the Rock Sites of Cappadocia.” The site's inclusion as a cultural heritage site by UNESCO was largely due to the well-preserved rock-cut religious structures and wall paintings dating back to the Byzantine period.【1】
Göreme Archaeological Site (Photo: Türkiye Kültür Portalı)
History
The history of the Göreme Archaeological Site dates back to 17 CE, when the Cappadocia region became a province of the Roman Empire. From the 4th century onward, the area came under the control of the Eastern Roman (Byzantine) Empire, and with the institutionalization of Christianity, it began to gain significance for religious structures. During this period, ascetics in search of secluded and monastic environments identified Göreme and its surroundings as ideal for establishing rock-cut communities.【2】
It is believed that the first major Christian settlement in the region began after the Roman Empire officially recognized Christianity. Under the leadership of Saint Basil, who served as the Bishop of Caesarea in the 4th century, the foundations of a monastic educational system were laid in Göreme.【3】 This model, which included spaces for worship, education, dining, accommodation, and burial, was later adopted in nearby areas such as Soğanlı, Ihlara, and Açıksaray.
In the 7th and 8th centuries, Arab raids and conflicts between the Byzantines and Persians posed a threat to the region’s security. Consequently, the rock-cut settlements in Göreme served both defensive and refuge purposes. During the Iconoclasm period (8th–9th centuries), religious structures were no longer constructed due to the prohibition of figurative imagery, and many monks abandoned the region.【4】
After the end of Iconoclasm in the second half of the 9th century, Göreme once again became a center for religious construction, and most churches in the area were adorned with frescoes between this time and the 11th century. This period is considered the most productive era in Göreme’s architectural and artistic development. Following the Battle of Manzikert in 1071 and the advance of the Seljuk Turks into Anatolia, Christian settlement in Göreme weakened, and Byzantine influence declined.
Rather than new construction, existing rock-cut settlements continued to be used during this era. After the Seljuks, the region came under Ottoman rule, and the area around Göreme was shaped by the architectural traces of Turkish-Islamic culture. Structures such as caravanserais, madrasas, mosques, and tombs in nearby provinces like Kayseri, Niğde, and Aksaray attest to this transformation.
Although direct evidence of Ottoman-era settlements in Göreme is limited, records show that in the 18th and 19th centuries, some parts of Cappadocia (such as Mustafapaşa/Sinasos) had dense non-Muslim populations engaged in church construction. In the same period, Christian communities in the broader Nevşehir region, including Göreme, continued to build churches and monasteries. The Ottoman Empire tolerated these activities, though with certain restrictions.
Today, remnants of churches dating to the 18th and 19th centuries can be found within the boundaries of Göreme, particularly around the Avcılar neighborhood. However, these structures are neither as elaborate nor as artistically developed as the early Byzantine churches and were largely small chapels or private worship spaces intended for local use.
Architectural Layout
The Göreme Archaeological Site consists of a cluster of structures carved directly into natural tuff rock formations. The settlement fabric includes closely situated churches, chapels, monastic buildings, burial chambers, kitchens, storage rooms, and other units related to daily life.【5】 These structures are primarily carved into the slopes and interior sections of valleys. This form of settlement was designed to meet the needs of both defense and the isolation required for monastic life.
Carved Tuff Rocks (Photo: Hans)
The religious structures in Göreme generally follow a barrel-vaulted, single-nave architectural scheme. Early churches are characterized by architectural simplicity, while those dating from the middle and late Byzantine periods also exhibit Greek-cross plans. In some examples, the number of apses increases to three, and the addition of a narthex further diversifies the interior spatial layout. These more complex designs can be observed especially in churches such as Tokalı, Karanlık, and Elmalı.
The monastic complexes were constructed as multi-story structures, with vertical circulation between levels provided by staircases. The lower floors typically contained dining areas, winepress rooms (for winemaking), and storage chambers, while the upper floors were designated for living quarters and worship areas. This architectural organization reveals that Göreme functioned not only as a religious center but also as a structured communal space for production and education.
The rock-cut spaces are generally closed off to the outside, lit by narrow window openings, and devoid of external decoration. Interior embellishments, however, are enriched with frescoes. Architecturally, none of the buildings employ structural construction materials; instead, they were entirely carved from masses of tuff. For this reason, the architectural practice in Göreme presents a unique pattern in terms of both spatial planning and carving techniques.
Notable Structures
The Göreme Archaeological Site consists of numerous religious and secular buildings carved into the rock using stone-carving techniques. The site is densely populated with churches, chapels, monastic buildings, kitchens, winepresses, burial chambers, and storage rooms. A significant portion of these structures were built between the 4th and 13th centuries.
Tokalı Church
One of the most extensive structures within the site is Tokalı Church. Architecturally, the church is composed of four main sections: the Old Church, the New Church, a tunnel, and a side chapel. The oldest part of the complex is the Old Church, which dates to the 9th century and features a barrel-vaulted, single-nave plan. The New Church, built in the 11th century, has a cruciform plan with cross vaults and an apse.
The church’s interior walls are entirely covered with frescoes, which date to the period after Iconoclasm, specifically to the era known as the “Macedonian Renaissance.” The frescoes depict an extensive narrative cycle of scenes from the life of Jesus Christ—such as the Nativity, Baptism, Miracles, Crucifixion, and Resurrection. Additional scenes from the Old Testament, Gospel narratives, and portraits of saints are also represented.
The dominant use of blue hues and the refined painting technique observed from the entrance onward suggest that Tokalı Church was decorated by a more advanced workshop compared to other structures in the region.【6】 The frescoes were executed not in tempera, but in the classical fresco technique applied onto wet plaster. In this respect, Tokalı Church is considered one of the most comprehensive and stylistically refined fresco programs within the Göreme Archaeological Site.
Tokalı Church Frescoes (Photo: Türkiye Kültür Portalı)
Dark Church
Also known as the "Church of Darkness," the Dark Church is a rock-cut church located within the Göreme Open-Air Museum, renowned for its exceptionally well-preserved frescoes. The interior receives light only through a small window, leaving most of the space in darkness an environmental condition that has significantly contributed to the preservation of its wall paintings.
Architecturally, the church follows a cruciform plan with a central dome supported by four arches and three apses. Four columns inside the main space help divide the interior and support the dome. The church dates to the 11th century and was likely sponsored by the local Byzantine administration of the time.
The fresco program reflects the stylistic features of post-Iconoclastic Byzantine art. At the center of the dome is a depiction of Christ Pantocrator, surrounded by angels, saints, and the Gospel writers. The walls illustrate key scenes from the life of Jesus, including the Annunciation, Nativity, Baptism, Miracles, Last Supper, Crucifixion, and Ascension. The apse walls feature large-scale apostolic figures and a Deesis composition.
With its strong narrative expression, compositional depth, and high pigment quality, the Dark Church is considered one of the best-preserved and most artistically refined examples within the Göreme Archaeological Site. The frescoes were executed using the true fresco technique (on wet plaster), and over time, they have only experienced minimal deterioration due to moisture and microorganisms.
Dark Church Frescoes (Photo: Türkiye Kültür Portalı)
Elmalı Church
The origin of the name Elmalı Church is not definitively known; however, it is believed to have been inspired either by an apple tree once located near its façade or by the spherical objects (globus cruciger) held by archangels depicted in the frescoes.【7】
The church features a central dome supported by four free-standing columns and follows the “Closed Greek Cross” plan type. With its three apses and nine domes, it represents one of the most architecturally sophisticated church layouts in the region. The entrance corridor is narrow and elongated—a deliberate design choice that both limits the amount of light entering the interior and helps preserve the wall paintings. In terms of layout, the church bears similarities to both the Dark Church and Çarıklı Church, and is often studied in conjunction with them.
The interior fresco program is quite extensive. The main chamber includes fifteen scenes from the life of Jesus Christ. Three of these scenes focus on his childhood, two on his adulthood, and the remainder on the events of the Crucifixion and Resurrection. Additionally, two scenes from the Old Testament—Abraham’s Hospitality and The Three Youths in the Fiery Furnace—are also depicted. The wall paintings were executed using the true fresco technique, with dominant hues of red, brown, and yellow.
Although the frescoes have suffered partial damage over time due to moisture, soot, and microbial activity, they have been largely preserved thanks to UNESCO-supported restoration efforts.
Elmalı Church Frescoes (Photo: Türkiye Kültür Portalı)
Yılanlı Church
Yılanlı Church, while architecturally and decoratively simple, stands out for its striking iconography. The church derives its name from the snake (yılan) figures depicted in frescoes on the southern wall. These scenes present a depiction of hell, where snakes are shown punishing various sinners.
Architecturally, the church has a single-nave, barrel-vaulted plan. The apse is plain and contains little to no architectural ornamentation. The entrance is located on the east side, and the interior space is quite narrow, suggesting that the church was likely intended for use by a small community or as a private place of worship.【8】
The fresco program is rich in iconography. On the northern wall are figures of Saints Onesimos, George, Theodore, and Onuphrius. On the southern wall, the “Punishment of Sin” scene is particularly notable, depicting four snakes attacking a sinful woman. Each snake symbolically represents one of the following sins: falsehood, pride, sorcery, and adultery. The figure of Saint Basil, regarded as the guardian of hell, is also depicted in this scene.
The frescoes were executed in secco technique, and the color palette is limited, with dominant tones of red, brown, and black. The compositions are placed on flat surfaces, and the figures are separated by frames. The visual language of the frescoes leans heavily on symbolism, making the messages accessible to the local population.
Yılanlı Church (Photo: Göreme Belediyesi)
Çarıklı Church
Located directly opposite the Dark Church, Çarıklı Church is a rock-cut church with a single nave and a cruciform plan. Its name comes from two figurative marks beneath the Ascension scene of Jesus, which resemble footprints with sandals (çarıklı), inspiring the local population to call it “Çarıklı.”【9】
The church features a Closed Greek Cross layout with three apses, a central dome, and cross vaults on the arms of the cross. Two columns placed outside the entrance give the church a semi-monumental appearance, distinguishing its façade from other churches. The entrance opens directly into the main space; there is no narthex or antechamber.
The frescoes inside the church depict scenes based on events from the Gospels, including the Entry into Jerusalem, the Last Supper, the Crucifixion, the Descent from the Cross, and the Ascension. Additionally, a scene from the Old Testament showing Abraham’s Hospitality is also present.
Çarıklı Church Frescoes (Photo: Türkiye Kültür Portalı)
St. Barbara Church
St. Barbara Church is named after Saint Barbara, a female military saint venerated in Eastern Christianity and depicted in the chapel’s frescoes. Architecturally, the church features a simple barrel-vaulted, single-nave, and single-apse plan. The layout is modest, lacking a narthex or any adjoining side spaces. There are no windows or deep niches on the walls, which reflects both the simplicity of its construction technique and its likely use by a small community for private worship.
The frescoes incorporate both traditional and local iconographic elements. In the apse, Saint Barbara is depicted holding a cross in one hand and a whip in the other. The side walls portray military saints such as Saint George and Saint Theodore. In addition to these figures, the walls are adorned with numerous geometric motifs, symbolic figures (such as a scorpion, cross, and star), and abstract-like drawings. Some of these motifs suggest that, in the post-Iconoclastic period, the local community expressed religious themes through a more abstract visual language.
St. Barbara Church (Photo: Göreme Belediyesi)
UNESCO Status and Conservation
The Göreme Archaeological Site was inscribed on the UNESCO World Heritage List on December 6, 1985, under the title “Göreme National Park and the Rock Sites of Cappadocia.” The site was registered under File No. 357 and recognized for both its cultural and natural heritage value.【10】 The designated boundaries include not only the Göreme Open-Air Museum but also surrounding settlements such as Avanos, Ürgüp, Derinkuyu, Kaymaklı, and Karain.
Göreme’s designation as a UNESCO World Heritage Site was based on its rock-cut architecture, well-preserved Byzantine frescoes, and monastic system, which together form an exemplary cultural landscape. Additionally, the area’s unique geomorphological features were decisive in its recognition as a natural heritage site.
Due to its protected status, the Göreme Archaeological Site is managed and monitored by the Cappadocia Area Directorate, under the authority of the Republic of Türkiye Ministry of Culture and Tourism. The area has also been declared a 1st-degree archaeological and natural conservation site. As part of preservation efforts, several protective measures have been implemented, including controlled visitor access, restoration projects, designated walking routes, installation of informational panels, and improvements to interior lighting systems.
Since the early 2000s, these conservation measures—such as regulating visitor flow, upgrading lighting, organizing pathways, and conducting restoration—have aimed to limit both physical and visual degradation of the site. These efforts have been positively noted in UNESCO’s monitoring reports, and the continued inclusion of Göreme on the World Heritage List has been recommended.
