Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan

Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan is a strategically significant country located in the Middle East, at the heart of the historical Fertile Crescent. Its official name is the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan, and its system of government is a constitutional monarchy. The country is governed by the Hashemite family, and the current monarch is King Abdullah II (Abdullah bin Hussein). The King holds decisive authority over both executive and legislative functions.

Jordan – Amman City View (Anadolu Agency)

Geographically, Jordan borders Syria and Iraq to the north, Saudi Arabia to the south, and Israel and the West Bank to the west. The country consists largely of desert plateaus, the fertile Jordan Valley, and highland regions. Its only maritime access is through the Gulf of Aqaba in the south, which opens into the Red Sea.

As of 2023, its population is approximately 11.5 million, including regional migrants and refugees. The vast majority of the population is of Arab origin, and Arabic is the official language.

National Anthem

The national anthem of the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan is titled "As-Salam Al-Malaki" (The Royal Salute). It was officially adopted after Jordan gained independence in 1946 and stands as one of the most important symbols of the monarchy and national loyalty to the Hashemite dynasty. The lyrics were written by the renowned poet Abdulmunim ar-Rifai, and the music was composed by Abdul Kadir at-Temimi. Musically, the anthem exhibits a ceremonial structure, while its content glorifies the unity, independence, and stability of the nation embodied in the person of the King. Additionally, Jordan’s historical role as part of the Arab nation and its commitment to the Arab cause form central themes of the anthem. The national anthem is performed at all official state and military ceremonies as a representation of national identity and sovereignty.

History

Ancient Era and Early Communities (c. 9000 BCE – 106 CE)

Early Settlements and Bronze Age Kingdoms

Human habitation in Jordan dates back to the Paleolithic era, and the region hosts some of the earliest evidence of human settlement in human history. One of the most significant archaeological discoveries is the Ain Ghazal Statues, dated to approximately 9,000 years ago. By the end of the second millennium BCE, the region hosted organized kingdoms such as the Ammonites (centered in Amman), Moabites, and Edomites, which vied for control over trade routes in the Levant.

Nabataean Civilization and Roman Rule

The region reached its commercial and cultural peak during the Nabataean Civilization, which flourished from the 4th century BCE until its annexation in 106 CE. The Nabataeans amassed considerable economic power by controlling the incense and spice trade between Arabia and the Mediterranean. Their capital, Petra, is renowned for its monumental rock-cut architecture and sophisticated water collection and storage systems, making it a landmark in the history of engineering and architecture. Petra has been listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site since 1985 and was designated one of the New Seven Wonders of the World in 2007.

In 106 CE, during the reign of the Roman Emperor Trajan, the Nabataean Kingdom was dismantled and its territories incorporated into the Roman Empire as the province of Arabia Petraea. Roman rule facilitated the construction of major urban centers such as Gerasa (Jerash) and enabled the early spread of Christianity in the region. Subsequently, the area came under the control of the Byzantine Empire.

Islamic Conquests and Medieval Dominations (629 – 1516 CE)

Spread of Islam and the Umayyad Period

In the early 7th century, with the rise of Islam, Jordan became a key area in the struggle against Byzantine authority. Although the Pledge of Aqaba during the time of Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him) took place in the Hejaz, it laid the foundation for Islam’s arrival in Medina and the emergence of the region as a political force.

Following the Battle of Mu’tah in 629 and the decisive victory at the Battle of Yarmouk in 636, Jordan’s territories came entirely under the control of the Islamic State. During the Umayyad Caliphate (661–750), Jordan rose to strategic prominence due to its proximity to Damascus. Umayyad rulers commissioned the construction of desert castles such as Qasr Amra and Qasr Kharana.

The Crusaders and the Mamluks

During the Abbasid period, the region’s political importance diminished, but it regained significance during the Crusades, when Crusaders built strategic fortresses such as Krak des Moabites (Karak). In the 13th century, Jordan came under the control of the Mamluk Sultanate based in Egypt, serving as a vital link for securing the safety of pilgrimage and trade routes.

Ottoman Rule and the Path to Independence (1516 – 1946)

Following the campaigns of Sultan Selim I in 1516, Jordan’s territories became part of the Ottoman Empire for four centuries. For the Ottomans, the primary priority was securing the Hajj route and caravans. A fortress (Aqaba Castle) was constructed to protect these routes. Pilgrims traveling along these paths were always under protection, and their safety was ensured. The Ottoman-built fortress is described in detail by Evliya Çelebi, who mentions its towers, ramparts, mosque, bathhouse, gates, and mill.

The Hejaz Railway

One of the most important projects of Sultan Abdulhamid II’s reign, the Hejaz Railway, was initiated by the Ottoman State in 1900 and reached Medina on 31 August 1908. This strategic railway line stretched approximately 1,464 kilometers.

Starting in Damascus, the line passed through Daraa, Amman (1903), Ma’an (1904), Qatrana, Tabuk, and Madain Saleh (1906), before terminating in Medina. Its primary objectives were to ensure the safety of the Hajj route, reduce the perilous and 40-day pilgrimage journey to just four or five days, facilitate religious service, and strengthen administrative and military ties with the Hejaz region to reinforce Ottoman unity.

The project was also intended to symbolize solidarity within the Islamic world and was largely funded by donations from Islamic countries. The railway facilitated the transport of troops and supplies to the Hejaz and Yemen during both peacetime and wartime, reducing reliance on the Suez Canal and enhancing the logistical importance of settlements such as Amman, Ma’an, and Medina. However, due to extensive damage caused by attacks during the Arab Revolt in World War I, the railway’s operations effectively ceased after the war. Today, sections of the line are preserved as historical heritage in Jordan and Saudi Arabia.

Route of the Hejaz Railway and Images from the 1904 Opening Ceremony of Ma’an Train Station (Tika)

The Arab Revolt and the Establishment of the Emirate

During World War I, the region became the site of the Arab Revolt against the Ottoman Empire. Following the Ottoman defeat, the region’s structure was shaped according to the division plan outlined in the 1916 Sykes-Picot Agreement.

This secret agreement foresaw the division of Ottoman territories into spheres of influence between Britain and France; today’s Jordan and Palestine were designated as the British zone of influence. Within this framework, the region came under British mandate following the decisions of the San Remo Conference in 1920. In 1921, a year later, Britain established the Emirate of Transjordan under the leadership of Abdullah bin Hussein, son of Sharif Hussein of Mecca, thereby instituting Hashemite rule and laying the foundations of Jordan.

Winston Churchill, Arab Lawrence and Emir Abdullah walking during the San Remo Conference (Library of Congress)

Establishment of the Kingdom

The emirate remained under British mandate until 1946. On 25 May 1946, with the end of the mandate, the country declared its independence and the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan was formally established under King Abdullah bin Hussein. In 1949, the state’s official name was confirmed as the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan.

Hashemite Kingdom and Contemporary Period (1946 – Present)

Arab-Israeli Conflicts and Black September

Shortly after independence, Jordan participated in the 1948 Arab-Israeli War and annexed the West Bank and East Jerusalem following the conflict. However, these territories were lost to Israeli occupation after the Six-Day War of 1967. These wars significantly affected Jordan’s demographic and political structure, particularly due to waves of Palestinian refugees.

In 1970, clashes between Palestinian guerrilla groups and the Jordanian Army, known as Black September, strengthened King Hussein’s central authority and consolidated the country’s internal stability and sovereignty.

Peace Agreement and Modernization

After decades of regional tensions, King Hussein signed a formal peace treaty with Israel in 1994, becoming the second Arab country after Egypt to take this step. Following King Hussein’s death in 1999, his son King Abdullah II ascended the throne and continued his father’s balancing policy, prioritizing national modernization, economic reform and technological advancement.

Jordan has maintained internal stability through its constitutional monarchy and the legitimacy of the Hashemite dynasty, despite major regional upheavals such as the Arab Spring and the civil war in neighboring Syria. Today, the country continues to play a key role in resolving the Palestinian issue and regional security matters.

Geography

Jordan is a country in Western Asia, largely consisting of a continental and arid plateau covered by the eastern extensions of the Syrian Desert.

Location

Jordan covers an area of approximately 89,342 km² and occupies a geostrategically critical position in the Middle East. It shares borders with Syria to the north, Iraq to the northeast, Saudi Arabia to the east and south, and Israel and the West Bank to the west. The country’s only access to the sea is through the Gulf of Aqaba on its southern tip, opening onto the Red Sea. This maritime outlet is vital for Jordan’s foreign trade.

Current Map of Jordan (AA)

Topography

Mountains

Jordan’s western regions are mountainous and rugged. The country’s highest point is Jabal Umm al-Dami, reaching 1,854 meters. The high plateaus around Amman play a decisive role in shaping the country’s climate and agricultural productivity. These mountainous areas block moist air masses from the west, contributing to arid conditions in the eastern regions.

Plains and Valleys

The most fertile part of Jordan’s geography is the Jordan Valley, which extends from north to south along the Jordan River and is the main region for agricultural activity. Wadi Rum in the south is a valley renowned for its sandstone and granite rock formations and is considered geologically and touristically valuable. The area was added to the UNESCO World Heritage List in 2011.

Wadi Rum (Anadolu Agency)

Rivers and Lakes

The country’s primary water source is the Jordan River, which originates in the foothills of Mount Hermon in the north and flows into the Dead Sea. The Dead Sea lies approximately 430 meters below sea level, making it the lowest point on Earth. Jordan is extremely deficient in water resources, a situation that has become a strategic issue for the country.

Climate and Vegetation

Jordan exhibits a transitional climate between Mediterranean and arid desert conditions. In the western regions, winters are cool and rainy while summers are hot and dry. In the east and south, annual rainfall is very low. The eastern and southern plateaus, which constitute the majority of the country’s territory, are dominated by an arid desert climate with minimal annual precipitation.

Particularly the Jordan Valley and the Dead Sea area experience a dry tropical climate, with temperatures rising locally to 49°C during summer months. Rainfall is concentrated mainly between November and April. Climatic variations directly influence the country’s agricultural production capacity and settlement patterns.

Natural Resources

Jordan’s main natural resources include phosphate, potash and oil shale. These resources offer potential for utilizing domestic non-renewable energy sources but are insufficient to meet the country’s overall energy needs directly.

Energy and Transportation Infrastructure

Jordan is a country with limited natural energy resources and therefore exhibits a high degree of external dependence in its energy supply. The country follows an energy consumption model heavily reliant on imports, particularly of oil and natural gas. This dependence is one of the key factors affecting energy security and economic stability.

Electricity Generation and Consumption

Electricity access is widespread in Jordan, with the majority of the population having access to power services. As of 2023, the country’s total installed electricity generation capacity stood at 6,890 MW, with the highest recorded electricity load (maximum demand) reported at 4,240 MW. Total electricity generation in 2023 amounted to approximately 24.182 billion kWh (GWh), while consumption reached about 19.113 billion kWh (GWh). Due to generation exceeding consumption, Jordan exports small amounts of electricity, although imports continue.

Generation Mix (2023): Approximately 78.0% of electricity generation comes from fossil fuels (natural gas, oil and coal), with natural gas alone accounting for 61.7% of total production. Approximately 22.0% of total electricity generation is derived from renewable sources: Solar PV contributes 15.0% and Wind Energy 6.9%. Hydropower generation is negligible at 0.1%. Total installed renewable energy capacity as of 2023 stands at 2,620 MW.

Fossil Fuel Production and Consumption

Jordan exhibits an externally dependent energy structure. There is no domestic coal production; all 120,610 short tons of coal consumed in 2023 were imported. Crude oil production is negligible; total crude oil output in 2023 was reported at only 43,988 barrels (approximately 120 barrels per day). Proven crude oil reserves as of 2021 stood at 1 million barrels. Consumption of petroleum products is high; according to 2023 data, diesel and heating oil consumption alone reached 33,520 barrels per day. Total crude oil imports in 2023 amounted to 1,776,000 tons.

Natural Gas Production and Imports

Natural gas is Jordan’s primary fuel for electricity generation. Domestic natural gas production is limited but increased in 2023 to 6.13 billion cubic feet (bcf) compared to the previous year. However, the majority of natural gas consumption is met through imports; in 2023, natural gas imports reached approximately 4.037 billion cubic meters. Proven natural gas reserves are estimated at around 20 billion cubic feet (bcf).

Per Capita Energy Consumption

Per capita primary energy consumption in 2023 was recorded at 32.91 million Btu. Per capita electricity consumption rose to 1,664 kWh in the same year. These figures confirm Jordan’s high energy demand and energy-intensive economic structure despite its limited domestic fossil fuel resources.

Transportation Infrastructure

Jordan’s transportation infrastructure has been shaped around its vision of becoming a regional logistics hub and ensuring uninterrupted foreign trade flows.

• Aqaba Port: Aqaba Port, Jordan’s only access point to the Red Sea, handles more than 90% of the country’s foreign trade volume. The port serves not only national trade but also functions as a strategic transit and distribution center for neighboring landlocked countries, particularly Iraq. Continuous modernization and capacity expansion of the port are critical for enhancing regional logistics competitiveness.

View of Aqaba Port (Pexels)

• Airways and Airports: Jordan possesses a modern civil aviation infrastructure. The country has a total of 17 airports. Queen Alia International Airport (QAIA) in the capital Amman, with an annual passenger capacity exceeding 9 million, serves as Jordan’s primary international gateway and a regional hub. The national airline, Royal Jordanian, provides an extensive network of regional and international flights, playing a key role in both passenger and air cargo transport. King Hussein International Airport in Aqaba supports tourism and regional connectivity.

• Road and Network Connectivity: Jordan’s road network forms the backbone of the country’s logistics infrastructure. Major highways and expressways connecting the capital Amman to the Port of Aqaba and border crossings with neighboring countries such as Syria, Iraq and Saudi Arabia are vital for sustaining uninterrupted regional trade and transportation. Maintenance and expansion of this network serve the goal of enhancing commercial integration and accessibility.

• Railways: The railway infrastructure has primarily focused on mineral and freight transport, especially for phosphate and potash. The government prioritizes modernization and capacity expansion of railway networks as key projects to promote regional trade, reduce logistics costs and strengthen regional rail connections.

Economy

Key Economic Indicators

Jordan’s economy exhibits a middle-income structure characterized by limited natural resources, dependence on energy imports and significant reliance on foreign aid. Economic growth is projected to reach approximately 2.6 percent in 2025. In the first half of 2025, Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) inflows into the country amounted to approximately USD 1.05 billion, representing a significant 36.4 percent increase compared to the same period in 2024.

• Gross Domestic Product (GDP): GDP rose from USD 104.307 billion in 2022 to an estimated USD 109.986 billion in 2024.

• Per Capita GDP: Per capita GDP increased from USD 9,300 to USD 9,500 during the same period, indicating a modest improvement in living standards.

Total exports in 2024 were recorded at USD 9.433 billion. The largest trading partners for exports are the United States (25.7 percent), Saudi Arabia and Iraq. The United States alone accounts for one quarter of the nation’s total exports.

The leading export category in 2024 was clothing and accessories, which constituted 19.4 percent of total exports. Significant growth has been recorded in sectors such as apparel and pharmaceuticals, while traditional export items such as chemical fertilizers, phosphate and raw potash have shown declining trends.

Jordan’s main import partners in 2024 include China and Saudi Arabia, followed by the United States and the United Arab Emirates (UAE). Major imported products are mineral fuels and oils, which account for 21.9 percent of total imports, along with automobiles, machinery and electrical equipment.

Sectoral Distribution

• The services sector constitutes the backbone of the economy, accounting for approximately 66 percent of GDP. Within this sector, tourism stands out as one of the country’s most important sources of foreign exchange. Education, healthcare and financial services also form strong sub-sectors of the services industry.

• The industrial sector, based on the extraction and processing of rich mineral deposits such as phosphate and potash, contributes approximately 26 percent to GDP. Manufacturing industries, particularly in textiles and chemicals (including fertilizer production), have shown development and attract a significant share of foreign investment.

• The agricultural sector accounts for approximately 6 percent of GDP. Due to limited water resources, its share in GDP remains low and production is generally oriented toward meeting domestic consumption needs.

Sectoral Distribution of Jordan’s GDP (DEİK)

Foreign Trade

Jordan runs a chronic trade deficit due to its dependence on imported energy and raw materials. Major export items include textiles and apparel, fertilizers, inorganic chemicals and potash. Trade flows are oriented toward Western countries and the United States, as well as neighboring Arab nations, under the framework of free trade agreements.

Foreign Investment and Business Environment

In 2023, Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) inflows into Jordan amounted to USD 843 million. A significant portion of these investments is concentrated in the industrial, construction and real estate sectors. The government actively encourages investments in green energy and technology.

Demographics and Education

Jordan’s population is approximately 11.5 million as of 2025. The population growth rate exceeds regional averages, and the country’s demographic structure is highly dynamic, largely due to substantial refugee inflows from neighboring countries.

Key Demographic Indicators for 2023

Jordan is among the world’s leading countries in terms of refugees per capita. This dynamic places continuous pressure on public services and economic resources. Approximately 84 percent of the population lives in urban areas. The capital Amman is the largest and most densely populated metropolitan center in the country.

Population Distribution and Urbanization

Population distribution is closely linked to geographic conditions. The western highland plateau and the eastern edge of the Jordan Valley constitute the country’s most densely populated and economically developed region. Cities such as Amman, Irbid and Zarka attract population through their roles as centers of industry, education and services. The eastern and southern regions (the Desert Plateau), however, remain largely arid due to harsh climatic conditions and insufficient water resources, resulting in very sparse settlement.

Ethnic Composition

Approximately 97 percent of Jordan’s population is of Arab origin. The remainder consists of small historical minority groups such as Circassians, Chechens and Armenians. The most influential social group is Palestinians of Jordanian origin. The population that arrived after the 1948 and 1967 wars has become integrated into Jordanian social, economic and political life, with a significant portion acquiring full citizenship rights.

Religious Distribution

Jordan’s official religion is Islam, and approximately 93 percent of the population are Sunni Muslims. Christians constitute about 6 percent of the population, predominantly belonging to the Greek Orthodox, Roman Catholic and Protestant denominations. The Christian community has a long and deeply rooted history in the region. The Jordanian Constitution guarantees constitutional protection for religious freedom. The state is obligated to safeguard the rights of religious minorities, and the Christian minority is represented in parliament through a quota system.

Migration and Population Mobility

Jordan is one of the countries in the Middle East hosting the largest number of refugees due to regional crises. As of 2025, approximately 660,000 Syrian refugees are officially registered in Jordan; when including both registered and unregistered populations, the number is estimated to reach 1.3 million. According to data from the United Nations Relief and Works Agency for Palestine Refugees in the Near East (UNRWA), approximately 2.3 million registered Palestinian refugees reside in Jordan. This results in a very high refugee-to-population ratio, placing significant pressure on Jordan’s infrastructure, employment, housing, health and education systems.

According to data from the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) and UNESCO, the majority of Syrian refugees do not live in camps but within local communities. This situation increases demand for public services and puts pressure on the capacity limits of municipal infrastructure, particularly in areas such as energy, water, and waste management. In education, while the Jordanian government collaborates with international organizations to ensure access to education for Syrian and Palestinian children, high classroom density and insufficient resources remain significant challenges.

Country reports published by UNESCO emphasize that the refugee influx has imposed a “continuous and structural pressure” on Jordan’s limited resources, leading to increased competition in the labor market and the proliferation of informal employment in low-wage sectors. Nevertheless, Jordan is regarded by the international community as a key partner in burden-sharing. Overall, the size and prolonged settlement of the refugee population have become a defining factor in the country’s social policies, economic planning, and public service management.

Education

Jordan stands out in the Middle East for its high literacy rate, compulsory basic education system, and advanced higher education infrastructure. The national literacy rate exceeds 95%; as of 2025, the proportion of the population aged 15 and above who are illiterate is approximately 4.8%. The education system consists of ten years of compulsory basic education followed by two years of secondary education.

Higher education lies at the center of Jordan’s human capital policy. Numerous universities operate in both the public and private sectors, with major institutions including University of Jordan, Yarmouk University, and Hashemite University.

Yarmouk University (Yarmouk University)

According to data from Jordan’s Ministry of Higher Education and Scientific Research, as of the 2024–2025 academic year, 51,647 international students from 113 countries are enrolled in universities across Jordan. This underscores Jordan’s emergence as a regional hub for higher education. The country’s educational infrastructure has particularly developed in engineering, information technology, and medicine.

The quality of education in these fields plays a vital role in meeting the nation’s demand for skilled labor. Quality assurance and accreditation processes in higher education are managed by the Jordanian Higher Education Accreditation and Quality Assurance Commission (HEAC).

Culture and Tourism

Jordan maintains its position as a crossroads of the Levant, where cultural diversity has evolved through historical processes.

Cultural Structure

Jordanian society is generally built on conservative and collective values. Extended family ties and tribal structures form the foundation of social order and individual identity. Hospitality, a hallmark of Arab culture known as karam, is a prominent norm in social interactions.

Cultural diversity has been enriched by historical waves of migration. A large portion of the population is of Palestinian origin, while minority groups such as Circassians, Chechens, and Christian Arabs contribute to the country’s social fabric.

Although Modern Standard Arabic is the official language, local dialects are widely used in daily life, and English is commonly spoken in commercial settings. Jordanian cuisine reflects typical Levantine characteristics; the best-known national dish is Mansaf, a traditional meal made with dried yogurt (jameed), rice, and meat.

Cultural Heritage and Preservation

Jordan possesses a vast archaeological heritage due to its historical control by the Roman Empire, the Byzantine Empire, and various Islamic caliphates.

UNESCO World Heritage Sites

The country’s global cultural significance is recognized through three main UNESCO-listed sites:

• Petra (The Lost City): Renowned for its monumental rock-cut architecture and advanced water engineering, dating back to the 4th century BCE and created by the Nabataeans.
• Qusayr Amra (Desert Castle): This 8th-century Umayyad structure is particularly valued for its frescoes, which are significant examples of early Islamic art.
• Um er-Rasas (Kastron Mefaa): This site contains ruins from the Roman, Byzantine, and early Islamic periods and is especially notable for its exceptionally well-preserved mosaics dating from the 6th century.

Rock Tombs in the Ancient City of Petra, Jordan)

Historical Structures and Archaeological Sites

Jordan is home to numerous ancient cities beyond UNESCO-designated sites:

• Jerash (Gerasa): Often called the “Pompeii of the East,” it is one of the best-preserved Roman cities in the world, featuring colonnaded streets, theaters, and temples.
• Amman Citadel (Jabal al-Qal’a): This historic hill in the capital Amman contains remains of Roman temples, Byzantine churches, and Umayyad palace structures.

Museums and Cultural Institutions

Jordan maintains national institutions dedicated to preserving and showcasing its heritage. These institutions play a central role in documenting the country’s thousands of years of history and reinforcing national identity.

• The Jordan Museum: Located in Amman, this national institution presents the archaeological and cultural evolution of Jordan from prehistoric times to the present in chronological order.
• Jordan Archaeological Museum: Functions as a central repository for significant artifacts recovered from excavations across the country.

Tourism

Jordan’s tourism sector is a critical economic pillar, vital for employment and foreign exchange earnings, and is built upon the country’s cultural, historical, and natural wealth.

Profile of Tourists Visiting Jordan

Jordan attracts a diverse range of visitors centered on historical, cultural, and health tourism. The country’s most significant attractions draw tourists interested in its historical and cultural heritage, including the Ancient City of Petra and Roman ruins.

At the same time, Jordan has emerged as a leading global destination for medical tourism, welcoming over 300,000 visitors annually for treatment and establishing a substantial market. Additionally, travelers drawn to nature and adventure tourism are attracted by the desert landscapes of Wadi Rum and the Red Sea coastlines of Aqaba, while regional tourists from neighboring countries are drawn by geographic proximity.

Tourism’s Share in the Economy

Tourism is a fundamental source of foreign exchange and employment for Jordan’s economy and holds a significant position in gross domestic product (GDP). For example, prior to the COVID-19 pandemic, data from 2019 indicated that the tourism sector contributed approximately 16.3% to Jordan’s GDP.

Although this ratio declined during the pandemic, tourism revenues have increased alongside the recovery process, reaching $72.39 billion in 2024.

Employment generated by the sector is also of critical importance; as of 2024, it provides employment to a large number of people. Health tourism is a particularly strong subsector, supporting this share with annual revenues exceeding one billion dollars.

Tourism Policies

The Jordanian government implements clear policies within the framework of the Economic Modernization Vision to support tourism and enhance its global competitiveness. The primary objective is to promote sustainable tourism while preserving cultural heritage and natural resources.

The legal infrastructure is being strengthened; the most recent example is the New Tourism Law, which came into effect in 2024, simplifying licensing procedures and establishing a special fund to support sector development. Additionally, subsidized travel programs such as “Our Jordan is Paradise” are implemented to revive domestic tourism, while infrastructure and product development investments continue in key areas such as Aqaba and Wadi Rum.

The tourism sector is one of the main drivers of Jordan’s economy and among its most important sources of foreign exchange earnings. It makes a significant contribution to the country’s GDP and is supported by the government as a key sector for national development. Jordan has also emerged as a regional center for health tourism, particularly due to the opportunities offered by the Dead Sea.

Tourist Regions

Jordan is defined as a tourist destination with a rich array of historical structures.

Historical and Cultural Tourism

• City of Petra: Petra, the capital of the Nabataean Civilization, is the country’s most internationally recognized symbol, renowned for its monumental rock-cut architecture dating back to the 4th century BCE. The city has been listed on the UNESCO World Heritage List since 1985 and is recognized as one of the New Seven Wonders of the World.

• Jerash: Known as the “Pompeii of the East,” Jerash hosts some of the best-preserved large-scale ruins from the Roman Empire. It is a major focal point for classical historical tourism, featuring the Arch of Hadrian, the Roman Theater, and colonnaded streets.

Jerash (World History Encyclopedia)

• Madaba: The city is renowned for its Byzantine-era churches and its large mosaic depicting the map of Jerusalem and the Holy Land, one of the most important examples of mosaic art. Madaba is also a center for faith-based tourism.

• Al-Maghtas (Baptism Site of Jesus): Located on the eastern bank of the Jordan River, this sacred site is believed by Christians to be where Jesus was baptized by John the Baptist. Due to this significance, it is a key site in international faith tourism and pilgrimage routes.

Nature and Health Tourism

• Dead Sea (Lake Lut): This lake, the lowest point on Earth relative to sea level, is a center for health tourism due to its high mineral and salt content, which is used to treat various ailments, especially skin conditions. It serves as a global attraction for medical and cosmetic visits.

• Wadi Rum (Valley of the Moon): This desert region, listed on the UNESCO World Heritage List, is known for its red sands, massive sandstone cliffs, and unique geological formations. It is a major hub for adventure tourism activities such as safaris, rock climbing, and ecological camping.

Marine Tourism

• Aqaba: Jordan’s only port city and free trade zone on the Red Sea coast, Aqaba is an active center for marine tourism thanks to its mild climate year-round, clean beaches, and rich underwater ecosystems ideal for diving and sailing. The city also functions as the country’s logistical and commercial gateway.

Foreign Policy and Security

Jordan’s foreign policy is fundamentally based on preserving regime stability, territorial integrity, and regional balance. The Hashemite Kingdom assumes a moderate, mediating, and balancing role amid the volatile power dynamics of the Middle East.

Jordan’s foreign policy axis is built on strategic alliances with the United States and Gulf countries, diplomatic sensitivity regarding the Palestinian issue, and pragmatic relations with neighbors. The Amman administration maintains close cooperation with the Western world in security, economic, and intelligence domains. Jordan also holds a special status as the custodian of Islamic holy sites in Jerusalem, a role that strengthens its diplomatic position on the Palestinian issue.

Relations with the United States of America

Jordan is positioned as one of the United States’ most essential and reliable strategic partners in the Middle East. This privileged relationship has deepened through mutual security interests, the preservation of regional stability, and shared objectives in combating terrorism.

Comprehensive Financial and Military Support

The United States allocates substantial annual economic and military aid to Jordan. This support contributes to Jordan’s economic stability and assists in the modernization of the Jordanian Armed Forces. Military assistance includes procurement of weapon systems, intelligence sharing, and military training programs.

Joint Military Exercises: Comprehensive military exercises such as “Eager Lion” are conducted between the two countries to prepare for regional threats. These exercises aim to enhance the interoperability capacity of the Jordanian military.

Economic and Commercial Relations: The United States and Jordan maintain strong economic ties. Jordan is the first Arab country to sign a Free Trade Agreement (FTA) with the United States, signed in 2000 and entered into force in 2001. This agreement has significantly increased trade volume between the two countries.

King Abdullah II of Jordan with U.S. President Donald Trump(Anadolu Agency)

Relations with Türkiye

Türkiye-Jordan relations are characterized by a friendly framework based on historical, cultural, and economic ties. The two countries maintain close diplomatic relations grounded in shared Ottoman heritage and a common vision for regional peace. Türkiye was among the first states to recognize Jordan shortly after its independence was declared in 1946.

Relations gained economic momentum with the signing of a Free Trade Agreement in 2009; trade volume has recently approached one billion U.S. dollars. Turkish construction firms play an active role in Jordan’s infrastructure, energy, and housing projects.

In the defense sector, joint projects are underway between Jordan’s Jordan Design and Development Bureau (JODDB) and Turkish defense industry companies, with technical cooperation focused on armored vehicles and modernization systems.

At the political level, regular high-level consultation mechanisms operate between the two countries, and they share similar positions on the Palestinian issue, the status of Jerusalem, and regional security. Türkiye views Jordan’s stability as strategically important for regional peace, while Jordan supports Türkiye’s regional diplomatic initiatives.

Relations with Israel

Jordan became the second Arab state to sign a peace agreement with Israel. The Wadi Araba Peace Agreement, signed on 26 October 1994, established mutual borders, formalized diplomatic relations, and regulated the sharing of water resources.

Although relations between the two countries have occasionally been strained due to developments concerning the Palestinian issue and Jerusalem, security and intelligence cooperation continues. Mutual dependence in water and energy supply has increased. Under agreements signed in 2021, Jordan imports energy from Israel while Israel sources drinking water from Jordan.

The Amman administration supports the establishment of a Palestinian state and maintains its relations with Israel under a policy of “cooperation in peace but principled distance.” This balance enables Jordan to preserve its alignment with Western allies while sustaining its legitimacy in Arab public opinion.

Relations with the European Union and Other Western Countries

Jordan holds an Advanced Status Partnership with the European Union (European Neighbourhood Policy / ENP Advanced Status). The EU provides development assistance and humanitarian support to Jordan, particularly in managing the refugee crisis. European countries such as Germany, France, and the United Kingdom also provide financial and humanitarian aid to Jordan.

Armed Forces and Military Capacity

The Jordanian Armed Forces (JAF) consist of land, air, and naval components and are regarded as among the most professional militaries in the region. The country conducts regular joint exercises with NATO members, especially the United States, and places strong emphasis on modernization and training programs. The Jordan Design and Development Bureau (JODDB), active in the defense industry, aims to enhance domestic production capacity and reduce external dependency. Defense projects conducted with Türkiye, the United States, and European countries strengthen the technical dimension of Jordan’s security strategy.

Land, Air, and Naval Forces

• Land Forces: The Jordanian Land Forces possess a significant armored capability with 1,458 tanks. This inventory is supported by 16,624 armored vehicles. Artillery strength comprises 358 self-propelled artillery pieces, 80 towed artillery pieces, and 56 multiple rocket launcher systems.

• Air Forces: The Jordanian Air Force has a total aircraft inventory of 274, approximately 178 of which are operationally ready. This includes 44 fighter aircraft (29 ready), 6 attack aircraft (4 ready), 13 transport aircraft (8 ready), 66 trainer aircraft (43 ready), and 13 special mission aircraft (8 ready). The Air Force also operates 155 helicopters (101 ready) and 44 attack helicopters (29 ready).

• Naval Forces: Jordan has access to the sea through a single port, Aqaba, on a 26-kilometer stretch of Red Sea coastline. The navy is primarily focused on coastal defense. While Global Firepower does not specify the exact number of vessels, it is confirmed that Jordan operates offshore patrol vessels. The inventory does not include aircraft carriers, helicopter carriers, destroyers, frigates, corvettes, or submarines.

(Image from a Military Cooperation Meeting between Jordanian Armed Forces and U.S. Officials)Defence Visual Information Distribution Service

Defense Industry

In the 2025 Military Power Index ranking of 145 countries, Jordan ranks 75th with a PwrIndx value of 1.6139. The country’s defense budget is set at $2.5 billion U.S. dollars, against a foreign debt of $25.6 billion, $15.7 billion in foreign exchange and gold reserves, and a purchasing power of $106.8 billion U.S. dollars.

Human Resources: Jordan’s total population is 11.17 million, giving it a significant potential for military personnel. With 100,500 active military personnel and 65,000 reserve personnel, and an additional 35,000 paramilitary personnel, the total military personnel is estimated at 200,500. The country annually mobilizes an average of 145,262 individuals into military service age.

Operational History

The operational history of the Jordanian Armed Forces can be characterized by participation in regional conflicts, internal security operations, and active involvement in international peacekeeping missions.

Arab-Israeli Wars

The Jordanian army played a central role in the Arab-Israeli conflicts that began with the establishment of the State of Israel.

• 1948 Arab-Israeli War: The Arab Legion was one of the most effective Arab forces to participate in the war. It achieved notable success in battles around Jerusalem and gained control of East Jerusalem and the West Bank.
• 1967 Six-Day War: During this war, the Jordanian army suffered heavy losses and lost most of its air power, forcing it to cede control of the West Bank and East Jerusalem to Israel.
• 1973 Yom Kippur War: Jordan did not participate directly on the front lines in this war but was affected by the regional conflict.

Internal Security and Cross-Border Operations

The army has conducted critical operations to address regional threats and maintain internal order.

• Black September (September 1970): This internal conflict involved large-scale operations by the Jordanian army against the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) militias. As a result of the clashes, the PLO was expelled from Jordanian territory and King Hussein’s authority over the country was reestablished.
• Syria Border Operations: Since the Syrian Civil War, Jordan has been combating drug trafficking—particularly of captagon—and arms smuggling that threaten border security. In this context, it has carried out military interventions including air strikes and commando operations deep within the Syrian border region.
• Regional Interactions: Jordan showed a tendency to support Iraq during the Iran-Iraq War but adopted a policy of neutrality during the 1990–1991 Gulf Crisis.

International Peacekeeping Participation

The Jordanian Armed Forces have consistently contributed to international stability efforts. It is one of the key countries that have actively deployed troops to United Nations (UN) peacekeeping missions since 1961. Jordanian forces have served in various global conflict zones including former Yugoslavia, Haiti, Congo, Liberia, and East Timor.