John Adams was born on October 30, 1735, in the town of Braintree, Massachusetts (present-day Quincy). He received his education at Harvard University and, after a brief period of teaching, turned to the field of law. In 1759, he was admitted to the bar and began practicing law in Boston. In 1764, he married Abigail Smith. The couple had six children, one of whom—John Quincy Adams—would later become President of the United States.
From the mid-1760s onward, Adams began to adopt an oppositional stance toward British colonial policies. He wrote under a pseudonym in the Boston Gazette against the Stamp Act of 1765. However, due to his strong adherence to legal principles, he agreed in 1770 to defend the British soldiers involved in the Boston Massacre. During this trial, Adams argued for the necessity of ensuring a fair judicial process and succeeded in having only two of the soldiers convicted of manslaughter.
Adams represented Massachusetts at the First and Second Continental Congresses held in 1774 and 1775. During the sessions, he advocated for independence and proposed George Washington’s appointment as commander-in-chief of the Continental Army. In 1776, he was appointed to the Committee of Five tasked with drafting the Declaration of Independence and played an active role in its adoption.
John Adams (World History)
Diplomatic Missions, Vice Presidency, and Presidency
During the American Revolution, Adams assumed significant roles in the foreign affairs of the United States. In 1778, he was sent to France, and in 1780 to the Netherlands, where he secured financial support and worked to strengthen international trade relations. In 1783, he served as a member of the American delegation that negotiated the Treaty of Paris, which officially ended the war. From 1785 to 1788, he served as the first U.S. ambassador to Great Britain. Following George Washington’s election as president, Adams was unanimously elected vice president in 1789. Throughout his eight-year tenure, he performed ceremonial duties as the presiding officer of the Senate.
In the presidential election of 1796—the first contested between political parties—Adams ran as the Federalist Party candidate and won. His presidency was largely defined by post-revolutionary instability in Europe and a diplomatic crisis that arose between the United States and France. The French government refused to receive American envoys and demanded bribes in order to commence negotiations. This incident, later known as the XYZ Affair, provoked widespread anti-French sentiment within the American public. Although Adams refrained from declaring war, he took steps to strengthen the navy. During this period, the Department of the Navy was established and new ships were commissioned. The undeclared naval conflict, referred to as the “Quasi-War” with France, was brought to an end by the Convention of Mortefontaine in 1800.
Despite this achievement in foreign policy, Adams's domestic policies sparked significant controversy. The Alien and Sedition Acts, enacted in 1798, introduced stringent measures targeting immigrants and the opposition press. These laws were widely perceived as an attempt by the Federalist Party to maintain political dominance and drew sharp criticism for their implications on freedom of expression.
While drafting the Declaration of Independence, Thomas Jefferson (right), Benjamin Franklin (left), and John Adams (center), (Jean Leon Gerome Ferris)
Retirement and Legacy
In the presidential election of 1800, John Adams ran for re-election against Thomas Jefferson but was defeated, largely due to internal divisions within his party and widespread public dissatisfaction. On November 1, 1800, he became the first president to move into the newly established capital of Washington, taking residence in the unfinished White House. Shortly thereafter, he transferred the presidency to Jefferson.
Following his departure from office, Adams retired to his estate, Peacefield, in Massachusetts. He largely withdrew from active politics but continued to write on matters of public interest. During this period, he resumed correspondence with his former political rival Thomas Jefferson, with whom relations had previously been strained. The two former presidents maintained an exchange of letters for many years, restoring a sense of mutual respect and intellectual camaraderie.
John Adams passed away on July 4, 1826, the fiftieth anniversary of the adoption of the United States Declaration of Independence. Unbeknownst to him, Jefferson had died earlier the same day. Adams is regarded as one of the foundational figures in American history, remembered for his intellectual legacy, steadfast commitment to constitutional governance, and vital contributions to early American diplomacy.
