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Lophius Piscatorius, commonly known as monkfish or anglerfish, is a predatory demersal species widely distributed in the Northeast Atlantic, Mediterranean, and Black Sea. It was first described by Linnaeus in 1758. The species has high economic value; its meat is sold fresh or frozen in European cuisine under the name queue de lotte.
Morphological Characteristics
Its dorso-ventrally flattened body, large head, and crescent-shaped mouth are distinctive features. The teeth are arranged in a single row and curve inward, preventing prey from escaping. It has no scales, and its skin is covered in mucus. Fleshy appendages on the head enhance camouflage. The first dorsal fin ray, known as the illicium, is movable and functions as a lure to attract prey. The swim bladder is either absent or rudimentary, which reflects adaptation to a benthic lifestyle. Lipid accumulation in the liver serves as an energy reserve during prolonged periods of starvation.
Taxonomy and Phylogenetic Relationships
The species belongs to the order Lophiiformes and the family Lophiidae, and is also referred to as the "white anglerfish." It occurs sympatrically with Lophius budegassa (black anglerfish) in the Atlantic Ocean. The two species can be differentiated based on morphometric features—particularly depth-length ratios—and the number of dorsal fin rays. Although molecular phylogenetic studies show low genetic divergence among closely related species, mitochondrial marker-based analyses indicate significant genetic isolation between the Northeast Atlantic and Mediterranean subpopulations.
Anglerfish Representative Image (Created with Artificial Intelligence)
Distribution and Habitat
The species has been recorded across a wide latitudinal range from the Barents Sea to the Strait of Gibraltar, and from the Mediterranean to the coasts of North Africa. The highest population densities are found in the North Sea, around the Shetland Islands, the Bay of Biscay, the Faroe Plateau, and the Icelandic shelf. Trawl survey data over the past two decades indicate that an average increase of 1 °C in water temperature, associated with global warming, has accelerated the species’ northward and westward expansion.
As a demersal species, it predominantly inhabits soft mud, fine gravel, or shell fragment substrates. Its typical depth range is 20–1000 m, with peak abundance occurring between 200 and 400 m. Concentrations tend to occur near plateau edges such as the Faroe Plateau, where upwelling nutrient currents enhance plankton and benthic fauna productivity. Juveniles spend several months in the pelagic phase near surface layers and settle to the benthic environment upon reaching 10–12 cm in length.
Acoustic and satellite tagging studies show that mature females migrate from deep channels to shallower eastern platforms prior to the spawning season (February–April); after spawning, they return northwestwards to colder and deeper waters. Males generally remain within a more restricted range. Research around Iceland since 1998 recorded a notable increase in stock size, termed a “phase shift,” which was suggested to correlate with changes in the Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation.
Ecology and Life History
Feeding Ecology
The anglerfish is an opportunistic predator that ambushes prey in benthic and benthopelagic environments. Its hunting strategy involves using the fleshy lure (illicium) located at the tip of the first dorsal fin ray on the head to attract nearby prey. When prey approaches, the anglerfish rapidly expands its large mouth, creating a high-speed suction that engulfs prey whole. This "sit-and-wait" strategy conserves energy and explains the common observation of empty stomachs due to low movement.
Diet composition varies with age, size, and geographic location. Juveniles feed mainly on small crustaceans and cephalopods, while adults shift to a fish-dominated diet. Key prey species for adults include Norway pout (Trisopterus esmarkii), blue whiting (Micromesistius poutassou), Atlantic cod (Gadus morhua), dab (Limanda limanda), horse mackerel (Trachurus trachurus), sand eel (Ammodytes marinus), and Norway lobster (Nephrops norvegicus). Additionally, some stomach contents have revealed squid, cuttlefish, and even seabird remains.
Occupying a mid-to-high trophic level, anglerfish play a regulatory role in maintaining species diversity in their habitat. Their slow metabolism and low movement rates preserve prey species identities in stomach contents over extended periods, providing valuable data for ecological interaction studies. Occasional cannibalism within the species has also been documented, likely triggered by food scarcity.
Reproduction and Development
Lophius piscatorius is a gonochoristic species with external fertilization. Sexual maturity occurs at about 6 years of age (48–58 cm length) in males and approximately 14 years (73–98 cm) in females. Females are larger and longer-lived than males.
Spawning seasons vary geographically, typically occurring from February to June in the Northeast Atlantic and March to July in Mediterranean subpopulations. Prior to spawning, females migrate to shallower platform areas, while males exhibit more limited movements to spawning grounds.
Fertilization occurs externally in the water column. During the spawning season, females release between 300,000 and 2,800,000 eggs encased in gelatinous, semi-transparent "egg veils" — ribbons approximately 5 to 10 meters long and 25 cm wide that drift passively in the water column.
Egg and Larval Development
Eggs measure about 2–3 mm in diameter and development time varies with temperature: at 7 °C, incubation averages 21 days, while at 20 °C it may be reduced to 27 hours. Larvae undergo an approximately 4-month pelagic phase, feeding near the surface. Post-larvae reach 7–9 cm before descending to the benthic zone to begin their bottom-dwelling life.
Gender and Reproductive Strategies
The species exhibits marked sexual dimorphism, with females having much higher fecundity. No parental care occurs post-fertilization. Embryos are protected within gelatinous veils that reduce predation risk by limiting chemical cues in the environment. Spawning is annual, with females releasing eggs only once per season. It remains unclear whether males mate with multiple females within a single breeding season.
Growth Dynamics
Growth rates, based on illicium cross-sections and otolith microstructure, indicate rapid growth of 12–15 cm per year during the first three years, slowing to 5–6 cm per year after age five. Maximum recorded length is 200 cm, maximum weight 57 kg, and maximum age 24 years.
Anglerfish Life Cycle (Created with Artificial Intelligence)
Conservation Status
The species is subject to intense fishing pressure in many regions due to its wide distribution, high commercial value of its meat, and its status as a targeted catch. In particular, fishing activities using deep-sea trawlers and gillnets off the northwest coasts of Europe (including the waters of the United Kingdom, Ireland, Spain, and France) directly affect the species’ stock dynamics.
Nevertheless, according to the assessment carried out by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) in 2017, the species is classified globally as “Least Concern.” This classification is based on relatively stable catch data over the past 25 years in the Mediterranean and the Northeast Atlantic, as well as the species’ wide geographical distribution. However, some uncertainties remain regarding regional subpopulations, and most data on stock status are reported at the genus level, covering the entire Lophius genus rather than the species level.
When fishing data are examined, the annual catch in the Mediterranean between 1996 and 2005 ranged between 3,500 and 7,800 tons. However, these figures generally include both Lophius piscatorius and Lophius budegassa (black anglerfish), making species-specific management policies difficult to implement.
