Men of the Sun (Book)

Men in the Sun (original title: رجال في الشمس / Ricâlun fi’ş-Şems) is the first novel by Palestinian writer Gassan Kanafani. The work has been translated into many languages including English, German, French, and Flemish. The novel takes place across multiple locations but primarily along the desert route from Basra to Kuwait. The text contains references indicating that the events occur in the years following the 1948 Arab–Israeli War.

Plot

Men in the Sun deals with the efforts of Palestinian refugees to rebuild their lives. It narrates the journeys of three Palestinian refugees, of different ages and social positions, traveling toward Kuwait. Through this novel, Kanafani focuses on the lives of Palestinian characters and reveals their social and psychological realities.

Upon its initial publication, the novel sparked controversy among Palestinian readers, particularly regarding its ending. The story is not limited to a political message alone; the personal dramas of the characters, their longing for home, their helplessness, and their experiences of exile give the narrative a universal dimension. Especially Ebû Kays’s yearning for his village and family, and Mervân’s journey undertaken at a young age to earn bread money, reflect the universal emotions of displacement.

The novel does not present time in a strict chronological order. However, the period and season in which the events occur can be inferred from textual clues. The desert journey, the themes of August, extreme heat, and the sun indicate that the events take place during summer. Expressions such as “ten years ago,” “yesterday,” “today,” “spring,” “sun,” and “heat” in the text reflect both the passage of time and the psychological states of the characters. One indicator of time in the novel is the information provided about Ebû’l-Hayzerân’s past: “Ebû’l-Hayzerân was an excellent driver. He served in the British army for five years before 1948.”^【1】 This detail points to the period of exile experienced by Palestinians after the 1948 war.

The characters’ internal perception of time is also evident. For instance, Ebû Kays’s longing for his village and his sense of alienation in exile are conveyed through lines such as: “The damp earth, left over from yesterday’s rain… No, it did not rain yesterday. We are in August. Have you forgotten?”^【2】 Such internal temporal shifts nourish the emotional structure of the novel. The progression of time can be traced through the interconnected stories of the characters. Esâd’s prior experience working in Kuwait enables him to persuade Ebû Kays; Mervân’s decision to travel to Kuwait is triggered by his brother’s cessation of financial support. These events are linked through cause-and-effect relationships. Thus, time is treated in a multi-layered manner, both within the plot and at the subconscious level of the characters.

Theme

The thematic structure includes concepts such as migration, poverty, destitution, hunger, deceit, ignorance, moral decay, death, and despair. The novel addresses the social and economic hardships faced by Palestinian refugees while also reflecting how these conditions affect individuals’ moral and psychological worlds.

The author explores corruption and the pursuit of personal gain through the character of Ebû’l-Hayzerân, who worked as a driver in the British army and later for the Kuwaiti businessman Hacı Rıza. Through this character, Kanafani examines the moral decay he observed in Palestinian society—the abandonment of values in pursuit of material gain.

Throughout the novel, Kanafani highlights the conflict between what ought to be and what is. The characters’ destitution reflects the destructive impact of war, poverty, and exile on individual lives. The author makes visible the psychological state of society through the characters’ internal dialogues and emotional movements.

Characters

Ebû’l-Hayzerân

One of the novel’s main characters, Ebû’l-Hayzerân, is a tanker driver. He fought in the 1948 war, previously served in the British army, was wounded during combat, and is thus partially physically disabled. He is tall, thin, experienced, and cunning. While working as a driver for the wealthy Kuwaiti Hacı Rıza, he earns money by smuggling people across the border in empty tankers.

His greatest desire is to save money and spend the rest of his life in comfort. Unconcerned with the Palestinian cause or ideals, Ebû’l-Hayzerân is a character who, for financial gain, leads people into a perilous journey. In this respect, he symbolizes pragmatism and the pursuit of individual survival.

Ebû Kays

Ebû Kays is one of the novel’s central characters. He is an elderly Palestinian refugee living under difficult conditions with his family in Basra. He resides in a hut allocated to him by a charitable person and worries about his children’s future due to financial hardship. A character filled with longing for his homeland, Ebû Kays decides to travel to Kuwait following Esâd’s insistence. Throughout the novel, Ebû Kays stands out through his yearning for his village, his land, and his past. His inner turmoil represents the issues of identity, belonging, and poverty faced by Palestinian refugees.

Esâd

Esâd is a man in his thirties who previously worked in Kuwait and has gained experience. The most seasoned among the Palestinian refugees, Esâd assumes leadership of the group. He is cautious in his decisions and guides his companions. However, due to financial hardship, he decides to return to Kuwait. His goal is to provide his family with a better life despite the negative experiences he endured in the past.

Mervân and Zekeriya

Mervân is a young character, aged sixteen or seventeen, forced to support his family financially. After his older brother Zekeriya’s marriage, the cessation of financial support leads Mervân to drop out of school and decide to travel to Kuwait. This situation highlights the theme of intergenerational responsibility. Mervân embarks on a journey of forced migration to ensure his family’s survival. Zekeriya, by contrast, is a character whose priorities shift after marriage, thereby affecting the family’s economic balance.

Ummu Kays

Ummu Kays is Ebû Kays’s wife. She does not directly oppose her husband’s decision to travel to Kuwait; her silence is said to reflect the social position of the dutiful woman. She is a devoted, self-sacrificing mother figure focused on raising her children.

Ebû Bekir

Ebû Bekir is a character stationed at the border who neglects his duties and is fond of conversation and tea. In this respect, he represents bureaucratic indifference and apathy.

Kavkap

Kavkap is a woman with whom Ebû’l-Hayzerân is involved. In the novel, her superficial personal life and emotional emptiness are portrayed.

Hacı Rıza

Hacı Rıza is a wealthy Kuwaiti businessman and Ebû’l-Hayzerân’s employer. He represents socio-economic inequality.

Other Characters

The novel also includes figures such as the village headman, the imam, and the teacher. These individuals represent the social structure of rural life and the community’s opinion leaders.

Awards and Achievements

Kanafani received the 1966 Lebanese Literature Prize for this novel.   In 1972, the novel was adapted into a film titled el-Muhdi'ûn by Tevfik Sâlih. The film won the Human Rights Film Award in Strasbourg and other awards in Paris and Tunis. However, it was banned in many Arab countries for criticizing their governments.^【3】