Neoplatonism is a school of thought that emerged through the reinterpretation of Plato's philosophy and its development into a metaphysical system. While this philosophical tradition bears the influence of ancient philosophers such as Euclid and Aristotle, it primarily focuses on Plato's theory of forms and his understanding of the soul, creating a new ontology and epistemology. Plotinus, who is considered the founder of Neoplatonism, established this systematic framework, which was further advanced by philosophers like his students Porphyry and Proclus.

The historical development of Neoplatonism spans from Ancient Greece through the Middle Ages and into the Renaissance. This philosophical movement, which had a profound impact on Christian, Islamic, and Jewish thought, continues to resonate in contemporary philosophy with its metaphysical and ethical dimensions.

Fundamental Concepts of Neoplatonism

Neoplatonism asserts that at the foundation of all existence is an absolute source known as "The One." "The One" is the origin of all being, an unchanging, infinite, and transcendent existence. All entities derive from "The One" and exist at different levels of reality.

• Intellect (Nous): This is the second level of being, emanating from "The One." Nous is considered the cosmic intellect, where all forms exist, and it represents the intellectual order of the universe. Nous serves as the intellectual representation of being and is the source of rational comprehension.
• Soul (Psyche): The soul emanates from Nous and forms an intermediary level that connects the material world with the divine. The soul is viewed as a mediator between the divine and the material realm. According to Neoplatonism, the soul's true happiness can only be attained by returning to "The One."
• Matter (Hyle) and the Problem of Evil: In Neoplatonism, matter occupies the lowest level of existence and is considered an element that deviates from pure being. Since matter is the furthest from "The One," it represents deficiency and evil. Evil is not regarded as an absolute entity, but rather as an incomplete form of goodness.

Prominent Representatives of Neoplatonism

Plotinus (c. 204-270 CE): Recognized as the founder of Neoplatonism, Plotinus focused on the ascent of the soul and its return to "The One." In his work The Enneads, he addressed topics in metaphysics, epistemology, and ethics, emphasizing the elevation of intellect and soul.

Porphyry (c. 234-305 CE): A student of Plotinus, Porphyry spread his teacher's ideas and made the Neoplatonic system more accessible. He also attempted to reconcile the philosophies of Plato and Aristotle and made significant contributions to the field of logic.

Proclus (c. 412-485 CE): Serving as the head priest of the Academy in Athens, Proclus was one of the philosophers who systematized Neoplatonism. His views on divine hierarchy and the structure of the universe had a major influence on the Scholastic period.

Ibn Sina and Ibn Rushd: Neoplatonic influences can be seen in Islamic thought. Ibn Sina shaped his metaphysical philosophy with Neoplatonic concepts, while Ibn Rushd interpreted Plato and Aristotle through a Neoplatonic lens.

The representatives of Neoplatonism have had a broad influence, extending from ancient philosophers through the Middle Ages and into the Renaissance. This philosophical tradition has been reinterpreted in various historical periods, continuing to shape the course of philosophical thought.

The One 

One of the most intriguing aspects of Neoplatonism is its explanatory power based on a single metaphysical principle. This philosophical system aims to explain the entire universe through one principle, and in this context, the philosophical significance of Neoplatonism lies in its presentation of a structure where everything emanates from a single source. This approach seeks to explain how everything emerges from this one principle and how all things derive from it. Neoplatonists do not view the origin of the universe as a creation occurring at a specific point in time. Instead, they argue that the universe continuously emanates from the divine principle. This ongoing process of creation is one of the core tenets of Neoplatonism, with the world maintaining its existence through the constant influence of this divine principle. In Neoplatonism, the idea of the universe being directly created by a divine being is rejected. Instead, the emergence of the universe is seen as a gradual process, where each stage serves as the creative principle for the next, continuing through successive phases. This emanationist cosmology is built on the idea that every action or event in the world has both an inner and outer dimension. For example, the sun's inner activity produces heat and light externally; the internal structure of a tree externally produces a particular fruit. This type of relationship reflects the fundamental understanding of Neoplatonism: every inner action produces an outer result, and this outer result is a natural consequence of the inner activity.

The fundamental principle of Neoplatonism is considered a unity that transcends all physical reality. This primary principle is an absolute unity and the source of the entire universe. The inner activity of this principle is regarded as a continuous source of energy that sustains the existence of the universe. However, this activity is not directly related to the physical universe's emergence, but instead manifests through a process, embracing the idea that all existence is rooted in a single principle, and everything is ordered according to this principle.

The Influences of Neoplatonism

Neoplatonism has had a profound impact on both Western and Eastern thought, with its influence manifesting in religion, philosophy, art, and science.

Impact on Christianity: Neoplatonic thought played a crucial role in the development of early Christian theology. Thinkers such as Augustine of Hippo identified Plotinus' concept of "The One" with God and integrated the idea of the soul's ascent to God with Christian mysticism. Additionally, Plato's theory of forms was interpreted as "divine intellect" in Christianity, forming the foundation of theological systems.

Contributions to Islamic Philosophy: In the Islamic world, philosophers like Al-Farabi, Ibn Sina, and Ibn Rushd integrated Neoplatonic concepts into Islamic thought. The idea of "The One" inspired the doctrine of wahdat al-wujud (the unity of existence) in Islam. Particularly, Ibn Sina's theory of emanation was based on Plotinus' concept of emanation (sudur).

Medieval Scholasticism: Neoplatonism was revisited by medieval scholastic philosophers. Thinkers like Anselm and Thomas Aquinas used Neoplatonic concepts to explain the nature of God and framed the idea of the soul's return to God within a theological context.

Renaissance Revival: In the 15th and 16th centuries, Neoplatonism experienced a revival in Western thought. Philosophers such as Marsilio Ficino and Giovanni Pico della Mirandola synthesized Neoplatonic teachings with Christianity, advocating for the idea that humans could attain divine knowledge. This period saw significant advances in art and science, with Neoplatonic ideas about "forms" and "beauty" influencing artists.

Impact on Modern Thought and Art: Neoplatonic ideas reverberated in the Romantic movement and idealist philosophy. Philosophers like Immanuel Kant and Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, while developing their thoughts on reason and ideals, drew from Platonic and Neoplatonic influences. In art, particularly in Renaissance painting and the aesthetic thought of the Romantic era, Neoplatonic inspiration can be observed.

Criticisms and Decline of Neoplatonism

Neoplatonism asserts that all beings derive from a single absolute source, "The One," and addresses the hierarchy of beings on a metaphysical level. However, throughout history, Neoplatonism has faced numerous criticisms and gradually began to weaken, especially during the Roman Empire period.

Criticism of Emanationism

At the core of Neoplatonism is the idea of emanation, which suggests that the universe gradually emanates from a divine source. Some philosophers criticized this concept, arguing that the existence of the universe could not be adequately explained in a logical manner, but instead relied on a mystical explanation. The notion of emanation as a continuous and limitless process created uncertainties about the beginning and end of the universe.

The Relationship Between Unity and Multiplicity

Neoplatonism's principle of "The One," which posits it as the absolute source encompassing all beings in the universe, has been seen by many philosophers as an abstract and difficult-to-explain concept. This view has been criticized as an unclear, and sometimes contradictory, approach to the relationship between "Unity" and "Multiplicity." Neoplatonists' understanding that different beings emanate from "The One" often makes the ontological status of beings ambiguous.

The Relationship Between Divine Being and Humans

Neoplatonists view humans as divine beings whose purpose is to return to God and the absolute unity. However, this view has been critiqued. Critics argue that it overlooks the biological and social aspects of human existence, focusing solely on metaphysical concerns without considering the practical implications for human daily life and social relationships. Additionally, the belief that humans can only reach God through reason and thought has been criticized as an idealistic approach disconnected from the tangible reality.

Neglect of Social and Political Responsibility

Neoplatonic ethics, focused on individual spiritual purification, has been accused of neglecting social and political responsibilities. Neoplatonism, with its insufficient attention to the structure of society and human social relationships, was criticized by thinkers who advocated for more practical ethical approaches. Moreover, the view that human society is merely an obstacle to individual purification and divine union was criticized for neglecting concepts such as social justice and equality.

Conflicts with Christianity

Neoplatonism has been confronted with certain teachings that attempted to merge with Christian thought. Christianity asserts that salvation is achieved through the life and death of Jesus Christ, the Son of God, whereas Neoplatonism contended that salvation is possible only through a return to God via reason. Thus, Neoplatonism was viewed as an alternative to Christian dogmas, though over time, some Neoplatonic teachings adopted by Christianity were subject to criticisms from opposing viewpoints.

Neglect of Nature and Matter

Neoplatonism generally regards nature and matter as mere shadows or reflections of divine truth. This perspective has been criticized for devaluing the material world and diminishing the true worth of nature and matter. Philosophers who advocated for understanding and establishing a healthy relationship with nature and material reality saw this view as insufficient and narrow.