Onna-Bugeisha

Onna-bugeisha is the term for female warriors in feudal Japan who belonged to the samurai class, received military training, and participated in both defensive and offensive roles in warfare. The term literally means “woman master of martial arts.” Onna-bugeishas were trained within the framework of the warrior’s path (bushido) and thus assumed specific roles within the military, ethical, and social structure of samurai culture. These figures have been documented since early Japanese history and performed various military, political, and social functions until the end of the 19th century during the Meiji Restoration.

Historical Origins and Legendary Figures

The presence of women in military and political authority in Japan extends back to the earliest periods of written history. Queen Himiko, who governed a federation of approximately thirty kingdoms in the 3rd century, is recognized as the first ruler mentioned in Japanese written sources. These records describe Himiko as the “ruler of the land of Wa” and note that she maintained her rule through mystical (kidō) and diplomatic means. She was granted the title “Queen of Wa” by the Chinese emperor.

Although Himiko’s historical existence has not been confirmed by contemporary Japanese written sources, archaeological findings dated to the 3rd century indicate the emergence of a centralized authority during this period. It is believed that the kingdom she ruled was known as Yamatai, though there is no consensus on its exact location. The discovery of mirrors, jewelry, spears, swords, and iron axes in the tombs of female leaders demonstrates that women held both religious and military authority at the time.

Feudal period the tradition of female warriors is embodied by several historical figures:

• Empress Jingū (c. 201–269 CE): She is said to have led a military expedition to the Korean Peninsula. Legend holds that while pregnant, she continued to command troops and delayed her childbirth by tying a stone to her waist.
• Tomoe Gozen (12th century): A skilled horsewoman and archer who fought on the side of Kiso no Yoshinaka during the Genpei War (1180–1185). Tomoe is celebrated for her bravery in epic works such as the Heike Monogatari and stands as one of the most prominent examples of the female warrior in Japanese literature.
• Hangaku Gozen (1201): She commanded a force of 3,000 soldiers and played an active role in defending a castle during the Kennin Rebellion.

Training, Weaponry, and Social Status

As members of the samurai class, onna-bugeishas received comprehensive education in accordance with the principles of the “way of the brush and the sword” (bunbu). Their primary duties included protecting their domains, defending family honor, and serving their feudal lord (daimyo). Their training extended beyond physical skills to encompass strategic intellect and disciplined spiritual development.

Their military proficiency focused on the following areas:

• Naginata Use: This polearm, similar to a long spear, provided a range advantage against mounted attackers and became the symbolic weapon of onna-bugeishas. It allowed female warriors to maintain distance and effectiveness in combat.
• Archery and Swordsmanship: They became proficient in archery both on horseback and on foot, and mastered the use of the samurai sword in close combat.
• Defense and Logistics: During sieges, they managed logistical operations such as ammunition production, care for the wounded, and fire suppression, thereby influencing the outcome of battles.

The Boshin War and the Aizu Resistance

The last major chapter of the onna-bugeisha tradition occurred during the Boshin Civil War of 1868–1869. Women in the Aizu region, loyal to the traditional Tokugawa Shogunate, defended the Tsuruga Castle against forces of the Meiji government.

• Jōshigun (Women’s Army): Led by Nakano Takeko, this volunteer unit fought at the Battle of Yanagi Bridge using only traditional weapons (naginata and swords) against modern firearms. Takeko was severely wounded in the battle and requested her sister to decapitate her to prevent her body from falling into enemy hands.
• Yamamoto Yaeko: Yaeko adapted to modern military techniques and became an expert in Western-style artillery and rifle use. She commanded artillery units during the castle’s defense and is remembered as one of the earliest examples of women playing a significant role in modern Japanese military culture, refusing to abandon her post despite heavy bombardment.

Social Transformation After the Meiji Restoration

Following the Meiji Restoration (1868), the feudal system was abolished and the samurai class was officially dissolved. This process led to a redefinition of military roles in Japan and restricted women’s public participation. In the new era, the Western-influenced ideal of the “good wife, wise mother” (ryōsai kenbo) assigned women domestic responsibilities. The Meiji Constitution of 1890 further limited women’s political representation by prohibiting them from ascending the throne.