Ottoman Intelligence during the Reign of Abdulhamid II

In the Ottoman State, intelligence activities have been regarded throughout history as a vital element for the survival of the state, with espionage being widely employed especially in border regions and diplomatic relations. However, these activities reached their most systematic and institutionalized form during the reign of Sultan Abdulhamid II (1876–1909). Abdulhamid placed intelligence at the center of state administration to control internal opposition and defend the empire against external threats.

Sultan Abdulhamid II in Yıldız Palace (Generated by Artificial Intelligence.)

Abdulhamid II’s Governance Style and Security Concept

Abdulhamid II ascended the throne amid severe political and military crisis following the Ottoman-Russian War (1877–78). The loss of territory, the rise of nationalist movements in the Balkans, increasing foreign debt, and European interference in Ottoman internal affairs pushed the sultan toward a more cautious, suspicious, and centralized style of governance. Yıldız Palace became the central hub of state administration; administrative, political, and security decisions were made directly under the sultan’s supervision. This approach made intelligence an inseparable component not only of security but also of the political decision-making process.

The Only Authentic Portrait of Sultan Abdulhamid II Taken Before His Selamlık Ceremony (SALT Research)

Hafiyye Organization

Organization Structure

The Hafiyye organization operated under the Zabtiye Ministry during the reign of Abdulhamid II but was not formally listed in the state’s institutional structure. The term “hafiyye,” meaning secret investigator, referred to officials tasked with gathering information on internal and external security matters.

Hafiyye in a Market Crowd (Generated by Artificial Intelligence.)

Jurnal System

Reports prepared by the hafiyye were called “jurnals.” These jurnals were submitted directly to the sultan, and administrative and military decisions were made based on verified information. Over time, the jurnal system became so widespread that a climate emerged in which every individual suspected others of reporting them, severely undermining trust in social relationships.

Development of the Hafiyye Organization

Foreign experts were also consulted in reforming the organization. In 1884, with the contributions of Monsieur Bonin, brought from France, certain methods of the French police system were introduced into the Ottoman context. As a result, surveillance evolved from a personal, informal network into a more systematic mechanism.

Yıldız Palace as the Center of Intelligence

Yıldız Palace served not merely as a residence for Abdulhamid but as the administrative and intelligence heart of the state. Reports from provinces, information from foreign embassies, and hafiyye jurnals were all centralized here, where the sultan personally reviewed them and made decisions. Thus, Abdulhamid maintained direct control over state affairs by having immediate access to intelligence.

Sultan Abdulhamid II in Yıldız Palace (Generated by Artificial Intelligence.)

Serhafiyes and Key Intelligence Officers

Fehim Pasha

The most prominent serhafiye of the era was Fehim Pasha. Entering the sultan’s inner circle at a young age, he established an extensive network of informants, particularly active in Istanbul’s Beyoğlu district. His activities drew complaints from European embassies, and he was lynched and killed during the proclamation of the Second Constitutional Era.

Ottoman Hafiye on a Rainy Street (Generated by Artificial Intelligence.)

Other Figures

Many other serhafiyes and hafiyyes are known to have existed beyond Fehim Pasha. These individuals were assigned to various regions of the empire, particularly strategic cities, and wielded sufficient influence to shape decisions of provincial administrations when necessary.

Intelligence Against Committees in Rumelia

Committee Activities

In the last quarter of the nineteenth century, Rumelia became one of the most problematic regions for the Ottoman State. Bulgarian, Serbian, Greek, and other nationalist organizations launched attacks against Ottoman authority, with committees centered in Macedonia organizing for independence.

Secret Committee Meeting (Generated by Artificial Intelligence.)

Intelligence Network

In response to these threats, the Ottoman administration did not limit itself to military measures but also established a robust intelligence and communication network. Local officials, inspectors, and informants transmitted information on committee organization, attack plans, and foreign connections to the central government. These efforts became even more systematic during the tenure of Hussein Hilmi Pasha as General Inspector of Rumelia.

Ottoman Watchman on the Bosphorus Shore (Generated by Artificial Intelligence.)

Censorship and Press Control

A key component of Abdulhamid II’s intelligence approach was the censorship apparatus. Newspapers, magazines, books, and theatrical works were subjected to strict oversight to prevent the spread of opposition movements through the press. Politically sensitive terms such as “freedom,” “constitutionalism,” and “constitution” were among the prohibited words.

Censored Ottoman Newspaper (Generated by Artificial Intelligence.)

Foreign Intelligence and Diplomacy

Abdulhamid II’s intelligence policy was not confined to internal security but was directly linked to foreign policy. Espionage activities by European states within Ottoman territories were closely monitored, and Ottoman diplomacy was shaped according to intelligence reports. This approach was a crucial factor in the success of Abdulhamid’s foreign policy, known as the “policy of balance.”

Intelligence Report and the Policy of Balance (Generated by Artificial Intelligence.)

Social Impact of Intelligence Activities

The practices of hafiyye surveillance and jurnal reporting fostered an atmosphere of distrust and fear within society. The belief that anyone could report another person damaged social relationships across Ottoman society. With the proclamation of the Second Constitutional Era, the hafiyye system was harshly criticized; some serhafiyes were lynched, and thousands of jurnals from Yıldız Palace became public knowledge.

Post-Abdulhamid and the Foundation of Teşkilât-ı Mahsûsa

The intelligence system established by Abdulhamid II laid the groundwork for the Teşkilât-ı Mahsûsa, created during World War I. Methods such as intelligence gathering, informant network building, counterintelligence, and the integration of diplomacy with intelligence were institutionalized as a legacy passed on to subsequent generations.

Spies’ Report in Teşkilât-ı Mahsûsa (Generated by Artificial Intelligence.)