Ottoman Intelligence during the Reign of Abdulhamid II

Ottoman State intelligence activities have been regarded throughout history as a vital element for the state’s survival, with espionage operations widely employed especially in border regions and diplomatic relations. However, these activities reached their most systematic and institutionalized form during the reign of Sultan Abdulhamid II (1876–1909). Abdulhamid placed intelligence at the center of state administration to control internal opposition and defend the empire against external threats.

^{Yıldız Sarayı’nda Sultan II. Abdülhamid (Yapay Zekâ ile Oluşturulmuştur.)}

Abdulhamid II ascended the throne amid severe political and military crisis following the Ottoman-Russian War (1877–78). The loss of territory, the rise of nationalist movements in the Balkans, increasing foreign debts, and European powers’ interference in Ottoman internal affairs pushed the sultan toward a more cautious suspicious and centralizing style of governance. Yıldız Palace became the center of state administration, with administrative political and security decisions made directly under the sultan’s supervision. This approach made intelligence activities an inseparable component not only of security but also of the political decision-making process.

^{The Only Authentic Portrait Before the Photograph Taken During Sultan II. Abdülhamid's Selamlık Ceremony (}SALT Araştırma⁾

The Hafiyye organization operated under the authority of the Zabtiye Ministry during the reign of Abdulhamid II but was not formally listed in the state’s official organizational structure. The term “hafiyye” meaning secret investigator referred to officials tasked with gathering information concerning the internal and external security of the state.

^{Çarşı Kalabalığında Hafiye (Yapay Zekâ ile Oluşturulmuştur.)}

Reports prepared by hafiyyes were called “journals.” These journals were submitted directly to the sultan and administrative and military decisions were made based on verified information. Over time the journal system became so widespread that a climate emerged in which every individual was suspected of reporting on others thereby undermining trust in social relationships.

Foreign experts were also consulted in reforming the organization. In particular following the arrival of Monsieur Bonin from France in 1884 certain methods of the French police system were introduced in the Ottoman Empire. As a result espionage evolved from a personal-based surveillance mechanism into a more systematic structure.

Yıldız Palace served not merely as a residence in Abdulhamid’s governance model but as the administrative and intelligence heart of the state. Reports from provinces intelligence reports from foreign embassies and hafiyye journals were all centralized here and the sultan personally reviewed these materials to make decisions. Thus Abdulhamid maintained control over state affairs as a ruler with direct access to information.

^{Yıldız Sarayı’nda Sultan II. Abdülhamid (Yapay Zekâ ile Oluşturulmuştur.)}

The most prominent serhafiye of the period was Fehim Pasha. Entering the sultan’s inner circle at a young age Fehim Pasha established an extensive network of informants and was especially active in Istanbul’s Beyoğlu district. He became the subject of complaints from European embassies and was lynched and killed during the proclamation of the Second Constitutional Era.

^{Yağmurlu Sokakta Osmanlı Hafiyesi (Yapay Zekâ ile Oluşturulmuştur.)}

Numerous other serhafiyes and hafiyyes are known to have existed beyond Fehim Pasha. These individuals were assigned to different regions of the empire particularly strategic cities and wielded sufficient influence to shape decisions of provincial administrations when necessary.

In the last quarter of the nineteenth century Rumelia became one of the most problematic regions for the Ottoman Empire. Bulgarian Serbian Greek and other nationalist organizations launched attacks against Ottoman authority and committees centered in Macedonia organized with the goal of independence.

^{Gizli Komite Toplantısı (Yapay Zekâ ile Oluşturulmuştur.)}

In response to these threats the Ottoman administration did not limit itself to military measures but also established a robust intelligence and communication network. Local officials inspectors and informants transmitted information regarding the organization planning and external connections of the committees to the center. These activities became even more systematic during the tenure of Hussein Hilmi Pasha as General Inspector of Rumelia.

^{Boğaz Kıyısında Osmanlı Gözcüsü (Yapay Zekâ ile Oluşturulmuştur.)}

Censorship was an integral part of Abdulhamid II’s intelligence concept. Newspapers magazines books and theatrical works were subjected to strict oversight aimed at preventing opposition movements from spreading through the press. Political terms such as “freedom” “constitutionalism” and “constitution” were among the banned words.

^{Sansürlenen Osmanlı Gazetesi (Yapay Zekâ ile Oluşturulmuştur.)}

Abdulhamid’s intelligence policy was not confined to internal security but was directly linked to foreign policy. Espionage activities by European powers on Ottoman territory were closely monitored and Ottoman diplomacy was shaped according to intelligence reports. This played a significant role in the success of Abdulhamid’s foreign policy known as the “policy of balance.”

^{İstihbarat Raporu ve Denge Siyaseti (Yapay Zekâ ile Oluşturulmuştur.)}

The practices of hafiyye surveillance and journal reporting created an atmosphere of distrust and fear within society. The belief that anyone could report on another person damaged social relations across Ottoman society. With the proclamation of the Second Constitutional Era espionage was strongly condemned some serhafiyes were lynched and thousands of journals from Yıldız Palace became public knowledge.

The intelligence system established by Abdulhamid II laid the groundwork for the Teşkilât-ı Mahsûsa created during the First World War. Methods such as intelligence gathering establishing informant networks counterintelligence and integrating diplomacy with intelligence were transmitted as institutional legacies to subsequent generations.

^{Teşkilât-ı Mahsûsa’da Casus Raporu (Yapay Zekâ ile Oluşturulmuştur.)}