Volleyball is a team sport in which individual skills and team coordination are combined at a high level. In this discipline, the accurate and effective execution of fundamental game techniques directly impacts overall team performance. Among these techniques, the act of passing constitutes one of the core elements of both offensive and defensive organizations within the game. During critical phases of play such as offensive preparations and transitions from defense to attack the passing action is frequently utilized. In particular, the passing techniques executed by the setter significantly contribute to diversifying offensive variations and enhancing the team's capacity to score points.
Passing, in volleyball, serves the purposes of keeping the ball in play, initiating offensive plays, and putting pressure on the opposing team's defense. As one of the fundamental techniques introduced from the early stages of a player’s development, passing is considered a priority focus, especially in the training of athletes during their formative years.
Definition of Passing Movements in Volleyball and Their Main Types
Overhead Pass (Set Pass)
The overhead pass, commonly known as the set pass, is a fundamental technique in volleyball performed by controlling and directing the ball to a teammate using the fingertips. In this type of pass, the ball must be handled exclusively with the fingertips, without contacting the palms. The overhead pass is typically employed near the net or in positions where the setter orchestrates offensive plays. When executed with proper technique, it enables the ball to be delivered quickly and accurately in the desired direction.
During the application of the overhead pass, the feet should be positioned shoulder-width apart to maintain balance; the knees should be slightly bent, and body weight should be distributed towards the front part of the feet. The hands are positioned above the head, with the wrists slightly extended backward at the point of contact with the ball. The elbows should be pointed outward, and controlled force should be applied through the fingertips at the moment of contact.
In the execution of the overhead pass technique, movements such as shoulder flexion, elbow flexion, and wrist extension occur in a synchronized manner. If proper timing and kinematic chain integrity are not maintained, ball control becomes difficult, often resulting in inaccurate passes.
Forearm Pass (Bump Pass)
The forearm pass, or bump pass, is a passing technique in which the ball is controlled and directed using the inner surfaces of the forearms. This technique is particularly used for serve reception, in defensive positions, and for intermediate passes made by players other than the setter. During the execution of the forearm pass, the hands are clasped by overlapping them, with the thumbs placed parallel and closed on top of one another. The elbows are kept straight, and the arms are fully extended and stabilized. The ball is contacted on the broad, flat surface of the forearms and directed accordingly. In performing the forearm pass, the body weight should be shifted forward, the knees slightly flexed, and the back maintained in a straight position.
The movement sequence during the forearm pass begins with hip and knee flexion and continues with a slight elevation of the upper torso and shoulders. The aim of this movement is to impart direction to the ball and deliver it over the intended distance. Particularly when dealing with fast-approaching balls, the forearm pass should be executed not solely through stabilization of the arms but by utilizing coordinated movements of the entire body mass.
Other Types of Passes and Their Roles in the Game
In addition to the commonly used overhead and forearm passes, volleyball includes various other passing techniques and variations applied during gameplay. These include one-handed passes, emergency passes used in difficult positions, and back-row passes, among others. In these types of passes, rapid decision-making and technical adaptations based on positional necessities are of primary importance.
The role of passing techniques within the game is fundamentally aimed at diversifying offensive variations and misleading the opponent's defense. Short passes are typically preferred for quick attacks, while high and long passes are used to bypass block defenses. The setter’s technical proficiency and tactical vision are key determinants in the success of offensive formations.
Finger Pass in Volleyball (Created by Artificial Intelligence.)
Biomechanical and Kinematic Analysis of the Passing Movement
The passing movement is one of the fundamental motor skills in volleyball, essential for the effective execution of both offensive and defensive phases. To perform the movement accurately and efficiently, it is necessary to apply a technique that adheres to biomechanical principles. The success of the pass is directly related to the comprehensive control of various kinematic variables, such as joint angles, muscle activation, body balance, and the timing of movement.
Kinematic Chain and Joint Range of Motion
In volleyball, the principle of the kinematic chain is fundamental during the execution of passing movements. According to this principle, the movement is initiated from the proximal segments (those closer to the body's center) and proceeds towards the distal segments (the extremities) through energy transfer. In overhead pass applications, the movement sequence begins at the ankle, knee, and hip joints and is completed via the shoulder, elbow, and wrist joints. In particular, the range of motion in the shoulder and elbow joints is decisive for directing the ball and imparting speed.
In the forearm pass (bump pass) movement, stabilization of the lower extremities and torso segments is prioritized, while the shoulder and forearm regions must remain fixed. At the initiation of the movement, flexion occurs in the hip and knee joints; during the pass, these flexions transition to a limited degree of extension, contributing to the direction of the ball. Keeping the shoulders stabilized in a slightly flexed position enhances the stability of the striking surface.
Muscle Groups and Motor Control
The muscle groups involved in the passing movement vary depending on the type of pass performed. During the execution of the overhead pass, the deltoid muscle (anterior and middle fibers), trapezius, serratus anterior, and pectoralis major contribute to shoulder stabilization and movement. The triceps brachii plays an active role in elbow extension, while the extensor carpi radialis and flexor carpi radialis muscles are responsible for wrist flexion and extension movements. These muscle groups are essential for imparting direction and controlling the speed of the ball.
In forearm pass applications, the core muscle groups (rectus abdominis, external and internal obliques) play an active role in maintaining body stability. In the lower extremities, the quadriceps femoris and gluteus maximus muscles work to balance body weight and provide the necessary stabilization during movement. In the upper extremities, the brachioradialis and pronator teres muscles assist in stabilizing the forearm position.
Balance and Posture in the Passing Movement
Balance in the passing movement encompasses both static and dynamic components. The player’s basic stance requires the even distribution of body weight across the soles of the feet before initiating movement. Maintaining a slight flexion in the knees lowers the center of gravity, increasing balance stability. This posture provides an advantage in sudden changes of direction and rapid movement transitions.
Postural control during the pass depends on spinal alignment and core stability. In forearm pass applications, in particular, the back must remain straight, the head in a neutral position, and the shoulders balanced. Failure to maintain proper posture makes it difficult to control the direction and speed of the pass, thereby increasing the likelihood of errors during game-play.
Performance Factors Affecting Passing Skills
Passing skills in volleyball depend not only on technical knowledge and execution but also on the athlete’s physical, psychological, and motor characteristics. The accuracy, speed, and directional control of the pass are determined by both environmental factors and individual attributes. This section examines the key factors influencing passing performance.
Agility and Reaction Time
Agility refers to the athlete's ability to change direction quickly and move with speed. For setters and other players, agility is a critical performance parameter in adapting to positional changes on the court and creating offensive variations. A high level of agility allows the setter to reach the ball in a timely manner and to execute the pass with optimal timing.
Reaction time, on the other hand, is the speed at which a player responds to visual, auditory, or tactile stimuli. Particularly in fast-paced games, during serve receptions or unexpected game situations, having a short reaction time is essential for delivering the pass at the right moment. The literature indicates that reaction time in young athletes develops in relation to age and training frequency. Regular reaction drills and speed training are effective in reducing reaction time.
Coordination and Hand-Eye Coordination
Coordination in the passing movement refers to the harmonious execution of timing between the movements of the lower and upper extremities. In overhead pass applications, in particular, the hands, wrists, and eyes need to work in synchrony. Hand-eye coordination assists the player in accurately perceiving the speed and direction of the ball and positioning their hands appropriately. Well-developed hand-eye coordination facilitates applying the desired force and direction to the ball. In forearm passes, accurately assessing the ball’s trajectory and speed is crucial for directing it to the intended target zone. Therefore, the development of basic coordination skills is a fundamental training objective in enhancing pass quality.
Age, Training Experience, and Anthropometric Characteristics
Age and training experience have significant effects on passing ability. In younger age groups, the focus is on teaching fundamental techniques and developing motor skills. As athletes mature, their movement patterns become more automatic, and their decision-making processes as setters improve. Athletes with consistent training experience generally exhibit shorter reaction times and more advanced technical application.
Anthropometric characteristics are another factor influencing passing performance. In particular, upper limb length, finger span, and hand size increase the contact surface area, facilitating greater control over the ball. Maintaining a balanced body composition enhances movement speed and accuracy, whereas excessive body weight or low muscle mass may limit movement efficiency.
Finger Pass in Volleyball (Created by Artificial Intelligence.)
Common Errors Encountered in Passing Movements and Corrective Approaches
The technically accurate execution of passing movements in volleyball has a direct impact on overall team performance. However, especially among developing athletes and beginners, a variety of technical errors are frequently observed in practice. These errors reduce the accuracy and effectiveness of the pass, potentially causing failures in both offensive and defensive team strategies. This section outlines the most common errors encountered in passing movements and explains the corrective approaches that can be implemented to address them.
Technical Errors and Their Causes
Errors in Overhead Passes (Set Passes)
One of the most common errors in overhead passes is the contact of the ball with the palm and the excessive gripping of the ball with the hands. This hinders the directional and speed control of the pass and often results in faulty contacts or double hit violations. Additionally, incorrect hand positioning above the head and excessive flexion of the elbows reduce the efficiency of the pass.
Another frequent mistake involves the feet remaining static and being positioned in an unstable stance. Insufficient bending of the knees and placing the body weight on the heels prevent the generation of the necessary power and directional control during the pass.
Errors in Forearm Passes (Bump Passes)
In forearm pass executions, common mistakes include improper hand connection and the inability to create a flat surface with the forearms. A loose connection between the hands or incorrect alignment of the thumbs leads to unstable passes. Moreover, if the player maintains an incorrect body tilt or insufficient knee flexion, the ball cannot be directed to the desired height or target.
Swinging the arms during the forearm pass or attempting to execute the pass with the hands rather than the forearms are also among the fundamental technical errors. Such mistakes are frequently observed, particularly in novice players.
Injury Risk and Prevention Strategies
Technical inadequacies and faulty applications increase the risk of injury among athletes. In overhead passes, improper positioning of the hands and finger joints can lead to ligament injuries and chronic finger issues. In forearm passes, maintaining the wrist joints in excessive flexion or extension can cause strain on the wrist ligaments.
To prevent injuries, it is critical to ensure the correct teaching of basic postures and movement mechanics during passing instruction. In addition, integrating flexibility and strength training into the program enhances the resilience of joints against mechanical loads. Regular warm-up and cool-down exercises are also essential for preserving musculoskeletal health.
Corrective Training Approaches
Corrective approaches to passing movements are based on technical analysis feedback and repetitive motor skill training.
For overhead passes, recommended corrective strategies include finger-strengthening exercises and coordination drills aimed at improving the contact area on the ball. Additionally, controlled passing drills using small and lightweight balls help to enhance finger flexibility and ball control.
For forearm passes, simple targeting exercises are employed to ensure the formation of a proper contact surface with the forearms. Wall-passing drills are effective in promoting symmetrical and accurate ball direction. Moreover, performing forearm passing exercises on balance boards helps develop overall body stability.
All these corrective approaches, when supported by individual feedback, video analysis, and guided practice sessions, can result in significant improvements in passing performance.
Play Volleyball (Created by Artificial Intelligence.)
Instructional Models and Approaches in Teaching Passing Skills
The development of passing skills in volleyball is not limited to the instruction of technical movements alone; it also requires the simultaneous enhancement of the player’s decision-making abilities, game reading skills, and tactical execution competencies. The instructional methods applied in the training process should be structured in consideration of the athlete’s age group, training level, and learning style. This section examines the fundamental instructional models and approaches commonly employed in teaching passing techniques.
Traditional Instructional Methods
Traditional instructional methods focus on teaching the technical details of the passing movement. In this approach, the phases of the movement are explained initially, and athletes are directed to improve the skill through repetitive practice. In technique-oriented educational processes, the accuracy of the movement and adherence to established standards are prioritized. The coach directly corrects the athlete’s mistakes and demonstrates correct movement patterns using modeling techniques.
In this method, athletes receive instant feedback and benefit from visual, auditory, and kinesthetic support tools. Traditional methods are effective in teaching basic techniques to children and novice athletes; however, they may limit the development of decision-making processes. Therefore, it is recommended that these methods be supported with game-based approaches rather than relying solely on technical instruction.
Game-Based and Web-Based Learning Models
In recent years, game-based learning models have frequently been preferred in teaching passing skills. Game-based approaches aim to develop athletes’ decision-making abilities and enhance their capacity to respond quickly and accurately to in-game situations. In these methods, passing drills are performed through small-sided games and simulations, supporting the athlete’s ability to execute passes under real game conditions. Notably, the correct timing and accurate delivery of the pass to the appropriate player during fast attack sets is among the key benefits of this instructional model.
Web-based learning systems are employed, particularly in delivering theoretical knowledge and visual content to athletes. Online video analyses, animations, and application software allow athletes to evaluate their movements from their own perspective and identify technical mistakes. Studies have shown that web-based learning tools have a positive impact on teaching passing skills, especially due to their capacity to provide individualized feedback.
Tactical Training and Decision-Making Processes
Ensuring technical proficiency in passing is not sufficient on its own; it is also crucial to instill the ability to make appropriate passing decisions and to develop game reading skills during play. Tactical training programs aim to enhance the athlete’s ability to position themselves effectively on the court, read the opposing defense, and make rapid and accurate passing decisions. In the development of decision-making processes, video analyses, tactical scenario drills, and in-game simulations are utilized. These methods increase the athlete’s responsiveness to various game scenarios and contribute directly to the quality of passes.
Passing movements in volleyball represent one of the fundamental building blocks of the game, playing a decisive role in initiating offensive organizations and maintaining defensive actions. Overhead passes (set passes) and forearm passes (bump passes) are the two primary passing techniques utilized in different game scenarios, directly influencing the offensive and defensive performances of players. In this study, the technical characteristics, biomechanical factors, performance determinants, and instructional methods related to passing movements have been systematically addressed.
To perform the passing movement effectively, it is essential to adopt techniques in line with fundamental biomechanical principles. Correct execution of the kinematic chain, maintaining optimal joint ranges of motion, and the coordinated use of muscle groups enhance the accuracy and efficiency of the pass. Furthermore, performance factors such as agility, reaction time, hand-eye coordination, and anthropometric characteristics have been identified as having a direct impact on passing skills.
Technical errors commonly encountered in passing applications limit the efficiency of the movement and negatively affect athletes’ in-game performances. To correct these errors, it is recommended that individualized feedback, video analyses, and corrective training methods be systematically implemented. Additionally, to minimize injury risks, appropriate posture and postural control should be maintained, and strength and flexibility training programs targeting the musculoskeletal system should be included in athletes’ training regimens.
When evaluating instructional models, it is evident that alongside traditional technical instruction, game-based and web-based approaches make significant contributions to the development of passing skills. The enhancement of tactical training and decision-making processes improves the effectiveness of passing applications in gameplay and strengthens the player’s role on the court.
