Pre-Islamic Turkic State

Pre-Islamic Turkic State is a historical-political concept used to describe the political organization, social order, belief systems, and cultural production of the earliest Turkic state structures that developed in Central Asia. This concept occupies a place in historiography both as a period designation and as an original model of statehood. The pre-Islamic Turkic state refers to a consolidated model of statehood that emerged in Central Asia through the consolidation of various Turkic tribes, characterized by its political, social, cultural, and religious structures. The system of governance based on lineage, the organizational framework adapted to nomadic life, and the conception of political legitimacy derived from belief systems formed the fundamental elements of this state structure. This model contains the origins of many elements that would later guide subsequent Turkic-Islamic states.

Pre-Islamic Turkic States

The major Turkic states established during the pre-Islamic period include:

1. Asian Huns (220 BC – 216 AD)

The first known major Turkic state reached its peak of power during the reign of Mete Han.

2. Western Huns (48 – 216 AD)

Formed after the division of the Asian Huns; the precursor to Turkic groups that migrated into Europe.

3. European Huns (375 – 469)

Under the leadership of Attila, they exerted pressure on the Western Roman Empire and were influential in Central Europe.

4. Göktürk Khaganate

• I. Göktürk (Köktürk) Khaganate (552 – 630)

Founded by Bumin Khagan; it was the first state to use the name “Turk” officially.

• II. Göktürk Khaganate (682 – 744)

Founded by Kutluk Khagan (Ilterish); the Orkhon Inscriptions date from this period.

Göktürk Map (Turkish Education Encyclopedia)

5. Uyghur Khaganate (744 – 840)

The first Turkic state to adopt a sedentary lifestyle; it developed under the influence of Manichaeism and Buddhism.

6. Avar Khaganate (562 – 805)

Ruled over Central Europe, influenced the Slavs, and waged war against the Franks.

7. Khazar Khaganate (651 – 965)

Active in the Caucasus and the northern Black Sea region; it adopted Judaism as its official religion.

8. Bulgar Khaganate

• Danube Bulgars (680 – 1018): Adopted Christianity and assimilated with the Slavs.
• Volga (Itil) Bulgars (7th century – 1236): Among the first Turkic communities to accept Islam.

9. Karluks (756 – 940)

Pioneered the foundation of the Karakhanids and played a role in the collapse of the Uyghur Khaganate.

10. Kyrgyz (840 – 1207)

Overthrew the Uyghur Khaganate and established dominance in Central Asia.

11. Pechenegs (9th – 11th centuries)

Inhabited the northern Black Sea region and established relations with the Byzantine Empire.

12. Kumans (Kipchaks) (10th – 13th centuries)

Spread from the northern Black Sea to Central Europe; later absorbed into the Golden Horde.

13. Oghuz Yabgu State (8th – 10th centuries)

Laid the groundwork for the emergence of the Seljuks and other Turkic states of Oghuz origin.

State Administration

In pre-Islamic Turkic states, political organization was led by a ruler bearing the title of Khagan. The Khagan’s authority was believed to be granted by the Sky God through the concept of “kut.” Alongside the Khagan, state administration included the Hatun, the kurultay (council of elders), yabgu, shad, tigin, ayguci, buyruk, bitikchi, tamgachi, tudun, and yarguchi. The administrative system was based on the “dual organization” principle: the country was divided into eastern and western regions; the eastern part, the center, was governed by the Khagan, while the western part was typically administered by the yabgu. The kurultay was a council attended by tribal chiefs and state dignitaries, where major political and military decisions were made.

Social and Military Structure

Society was integrated with a military structure. According to the “army-nation” concept, every individual was considered a soldier from birth. The army was organized according to the “decimal system.” The Khagan was the supreme commander of the army. The primary military tactic was the “Turan Tactic,” which involved surrounding and annihilating the enemy. The core of the army consisted of cavalry units.

Economic Life

The economy of pre-Islamic Turkic societies was primarily based on animal husbandry. Animals such as horses, sheep, and camels were vital for both sustenance and trade. Limited agricultural activities were carried out in winter pastures. During the Uyghur period, with the transition to a sedentary lifestyle, significant progress was made in agriculture and trade. The Turks established trade relations with states such as China, Iran, and Byzantium due to their strategic position along the Silk Road.

Economic Depiction of Pre-Islamic Turks (Generated by Artificial Intelligence)

Religious Beliefs and Practices

The belief in the Sky God formed the core of the religious worldview of pre-Islamic Turks. Ancestor worship, nature spirits, and beliefs in earth and water deities were also significant. Funeral rites were called “yuğ,” and stone monuments known as “balbal” were erected at the graves of the deceased. Religious ceremonies were conducted by spiritual figures known as Kam or Baksı, who were believed to communicate with spirits. The Uyghurs adopted Manichaeism and Buddhism, leading to distinct religious practices. The Khazars embraced Judaism, while the Bulgars adopted Christianity. Beginning in the 9th century, some tribes began to embrace Islam.

Depiction of a Shaman in Pre-Islamic Turkic Society (Generated by Artificial Intelligence)

Writing, Language, and Literature

The Orkhon Inscriptions, written in the Göktürk alphabet, are among the oldest written records in Turkic history. These inscriptions were erected in honor of Bilge Khagan, Kül Tigin, and Tonyukuk. The texts provide information on political organization, moral concepts, and foreign relations. The Uyghurs developed their own alphabet based on the Sogdian script and produced texts with Manichaean and Buddhist content. They were also the first Turkic community to print books using woodblock printing. Oral cultural traditions continued through sav (proverbs), sagu (elegies), koşuk (festive poetry), and epics. Epics such as Oghuz Khan, Ergenekon, Türeyiş, and Göç played a crucial role in transmitting collective memory and historical consciousness.

Art and Architecture

Artistic expression developed in accordance with the nomadic lifestyle, with portable art objects becoming widespread. The animal style was particularly prominent. With the transition to a sedentary lifestyle, the Uyghurs made advances in architecture and in fields such as fresco painting, miniature art, and bookbinding.

The pre-Islamic Turkic state established a coherent and functional system encompassing political authority, legal order, belief structures, and cultural production. This system continued to exert influence in subsequent periods within the historical continuity of the Turkic peoples.