Socratic Inquiry

Socratic questioning is a teaching and research method attributed to the ancient Greek philosopher Socrates, based on the principle of revealing truths hidden in the interlocutor’s mind through a pre-structured series of questions. The essence of the method lies not in the instructor directly imparting knowledge, but in guiding the student to structure their existing knowledge and thoughts so as to “give birth” to new understanding. The goal in this process is not to teach something new, but to remind the individual of knowledge they already possess or are capable of discovering, and to assist them in rediscovering it.

This method aims to encourage the interlocutor to analyze their own thoughts, question their assumptions, and reach new insights through logical reasoning. In this sense, Socratic questioning focuses on developing skills such as critical thinking, problem solving, and taking responsibility for one’s own learning process. According to Dr. Richard Paul, founder of the Center for Critical Thinking at Sonoma State University, Socratic questioning involves processes such as clarifying thoughts, examining context, reviewing foundations, identifying assumptions, and defining perspectives. What distinguishes it from ordinary questioning are characteristics such as “systematicity, depth, and willingness to evaluate reasonableness or reality.”

In one of its application areas, Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (BDT), this form of the method is called Guided Discovery. In this technique, the goal is to help the client become aware of information they are capable of knowing but cannot currently perceive due to their emotional state or lack of awareness.

Historical Development and Philosophical Foundations

The origins of Socratic questioning lie in the philosophical practices of Socrates, documented in the dialogues of Plato from the 4th century BCE. In these dialogues, Socrates employed a systematic question-and-answer technique to challenge assumptions, expose contradictions, and arrive at new knowledge. His statement, “An unexamined life is not worth living,” underscores the centrality of self-questioning and the continuous pursuit of truth in his philosophy.

The philosophical foundation of the method rests on epistemology, particularly the Rationalism school of thought. According to Rationalism, the source of knowledge is reason, and true knowledge can be attained only through intellect and thought. Socrates is regarded as one of the earliest founders of Rationalism in ancient Greece. In Socratic rationalism, all knowledge is innate within the human mind, but it exists not in an explicit or awakened state, rather in an implicit and dormant condition. The role of education is to uncover and awaken these latent truths through questioning.

This philosophical basis is closely linked to the educational philosophy of Idealism. According to Idealism, reality is mental or spiritual, and knowledge is accessed not through observation and experience, but through intuitive and intellectual means. Idealist education seeks to guide students in the search for truth and to help them become aware of the innate qualities they bring with them. One of the most effective techniques employed within this philosophy is Socratic questioning.

Theoretical Approaches and Mechanism

Socratic questioning has been described in various theoretical frameworks through distinct stages.

Classical Two-Stage Model

Classically, Socratic questioning consists of two fundamental stages:

Irony (Socratic Irony)

In this stage, the instructor uses questions to make the interlocutor aware that their current knowledge is inadequate or erroneous, and that what they believed they knew, they in fact do not know. The aim is to free the individual from dogmatic attitudes and biases, preparing them for the pursuit of truth.

Maieutics (The Art of Midwifery)

In this stage, through further questions and cues, the interlocutor is guided to discover and “give birth” to correct knowledge using their own reasoning. The instructor assumes the role of a “midwife,” not as a source of knowledge, but as one who facilitates the emergence of knowledge.

Five-Stage Dialectical Model

Based on Plato’s dialogues, the process of Socratic questioning can be modeled in five steps:

Wonder

The process typically begins with a question that probes the essence of a concept, such as “What is justice?” or “What is beauty?”

Hypothesis

The interlocutor offers a possible answer to the question. This answer is an initial proposition that has not yet been evaluated.

Elenchus (Refutation and Cross-Examination)

This is the central stage of the method. The questioner presents counterexamples or situations that contradict the proposed hypothesis, revealing its inconsistency or incompleteness. The aim is to refute the interlocutor’s claim.

Acceptance or Rejection of the Hypothesis

The interlocutor evaluates the counterexample. If they accept it, they return to the second stage and propose a new hypothesis. If they reject it, the original hypothesis is provisionally accepted and further counterexamples are sought.

Application

Once the discussion and questioning process reaches a consistent and defensible conclusion, the individual acts in accordance with this new understanding.

Guided Discovery Stages (BDT)

The guided discovery process used in Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy includes the following steps:

Definition

The client’s problem is listened to, and their core thoughts and beliefs are identified.

Examination-Evaluation and Alternative Generation

The client is asked questions that highlight situations contradicting or exceptional to their current belief.

Reframing

Based on the newly emerged information, the old belief is summarized and new cognitive structures are developed.

Conclusion and Application

The new belief is compared with the old distorted belief, reevaluated, and a new behavior or attitude is developed accordingly.

Types of Questions

The quality of questioning is directly related to the type and variety of questions used. Different researchers have classified the types of questions used in Socratic questioning in various ways.

Question Types According to Paul and Elder:

• Clarifying Questions: (“What do you mean by…?”, “Can you give me an example?”)

• Assumption-Based Questions: (“What assumptions are you making?”, “Why did you make this assumption?”)

• Perspective-Exploring Questions: (“Can we look at this issue from another angle?”)

• Fact, Reason, and Evidence-Based Questions: (“What evidence do you have for this?”, “How did you reach this conclusion?”)

• Implication and Consequence Questions: (“What are you implying?”, “What would happen if this were true?”)

• Meta-Questions: (“Can you rephrase this question?”, “Which questions must we answer first to answer this one?”)

Question Types According to Overholser (in BDT Context):

• Information-Gathering Questions: Basic “what, where, how” questions aimed at defining the problem.

• Paraphrasing Questions: Questions that probe the meaning of events and reveal automatic thoughts.

• Interpretive Questions: Questions that uncover possible relationships between events or situations.

• Application Questions: Questions that direct the person’s attention to prior knowledge and skills.

• Analytical Questions: Questions that break down the problem into components and enable systematic and logical examination.

• Analytic Synthesis or Evaluation Questions: Questions that enable the person to reevaluate initial thoughts in light of all gathered information.

Application Areas and Implementation Modes

Socratic questioning has a wide range of applications, from education to psychotherapy.

Education

In the classroom, Socratic questioning is used to develop students’ critical thinking skills, correct conceptual misunderstandings, promote active participation in lessons, and enhance the retention of learned material. For example, in a study conducted in a vocational high school on teaching “Ohm’s Law,” the method was found effective in improving students’ academic achievement and the durability of learning. In this application, lessons were conducted in laboratories with experimental setups, using a “U”-shaped classroom arrangement, and students were encouraged to ask questions both to the teacher and to each other.

Psychotherapy

It is one of the core techniques of Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy. Under the name “Guided Discovery,” it is used to help clients question their dysfunctional beliefs and automatic thoughts, evaluate their validity, and develop more adaptive cognitive structures.

In-Class Implementation Models

Paul and Elder propose two primary modes of implementation in the classroom:

Socratic Questioning Through Modeling

Used especially when introducing a new skill. The teacher models their own thinking process—by asking questions and reasoning aloud—while reading a text or solving a problem. Students then practice this behavior.

Deep-Dive Model

In this model, questioning proceeds cyclically among the whole class, small groups, and individual work. The process begins with key questions posed to the entire class, deepens through small-group discussions, is revisited as a whole class, and is synthesized through individual writing assignments.

Advantages and Limitations of the Method

Advantages

Instruction based on Socratic questioning offers several benefits:

• Develops students’ analytical and critical thinking skills.

• Promotes active participation in the learning process and supports student-centered education.

• Allows students to evaluate their own views and thoughts.

• Facilitates the acquisition of higher-order cognitive skills such as analysis, synthesis, and evaluation.

• Enhances the long-term retention of learned information.

• Develops verbal communication and interaction skills.

• Increases students’ motivation and interest in the subject.

• Can foster self-confidence and respect for diverse viewpoints.

Limitations

As with any method, Socratic questioning has certain limitations:

• Its implementation may require considerable time and can slow the pace of instruction.

• For it to be effective, the teacher must be well-prepared with a carefully structured set of questions.

• It may lead to digressions and unnecessary discussions in the classroom.

• It can be difficult to implement in large classes.

• Some students may experience negative emotions when their answers are incorrect or their ideas are refuted.

Considerations for Effective Implementation

For the method to be applied effectively, both the teacher’s role and the classroom environment are crucial.

The Teacher’s Role

• The teacher should respond to all answers with further questions and avoid providing direct answers.

• Questions should be prepared in advance, arranged in a logical sequence, and planned for timing.

• Sufficient wait time should be allowed after each question to give students time to think.

• When brief answers are given, follow-up questions should be used to elaborate on the topic.

• Encourage participation from all students and avoid giving speaking rights only to a few.

• The teacher’s attitude toward students should be encouraging; a safe environment should be created through gestures, facial expressions, and tone of voice.

Classroom Environment

• A free, respectful, and pressure-free environment must be created where students feel comfortable expressing themselves.

• An atmosphere should be cultivated that encourages problem-solving and reflective thinking.

• The physical environment can be arranged to facilitate communication, for example, using a “U”-shaped layout.

• The teacher should model critical thinking and questioning through their own behavior.