Stained glass is a decorative glass technique created by assembling pieces of glass in different colors with lead strips, usually placed in window openings. This technique involves methods such as coloring the glass itself (pot-metal), surface painting (enamel), or applying metal oxide to the glass surface (silver stain) to achieve color. The resulting compositions, with their light-transmitting qualities, create a visual effect within the interior space of the architectural structure.
Considered both an art and a craft, stained glass was widely used in religious buildings, especially in Medieval Europe. Over time, with the development of technical possibilities, it was enriched with figurative depictions, symbols, and inscriptions, and applied in different styles during the Gothic, Renaissance, and modern periods. Today, stained glass remains part of both traditional and contemporary glass art, used either in architectural harmony or as an independent work of art.
Spiral Stained Glass Work (pexels)
History
The development of stained glass art in Western Europe coincided with the rise of Gothic architecture. In this period, the large windows of high-walled cathedrals were filled with glass, transformed into figurative, narrative, and inscribed compositions. In France in particular, cathedrals such as Saint-Denis (during the time of Abbot Suger), Chartres, Bourges, Reims, and Sens became important centers of this art.
From a technical perspective, colored glass pieces joined by lead strips were employed, while details were emphasized with black or brown paint. Shading was limited, figures were symmetrical, simple, and symbolic in nature. Figurative elements were often arranged in medallion formats, with each panel designed as a narrative scene. The basic color palette featured deep blue, dark red, white (ivory or greenish tones), olive green, and muted yellows. Because the glass of this era was thick, textured, and available in only a limited range of colors, designs were simple and spread across broad areas. Technical restrictions also shaped the aesthetic, giving rise to an abstract, rhythmic compositional approach.
Late Gothic Period
From the 14th century onward, advances in glass production enabled more complex and figurative applications in stained glass. Larger glass sheets, smoother surfaces, and new coloring techniques offered artists greater expressive possibilities. In particular, the technique of silver stain introduced yellow and golden tones onto white glass, becoming permanent after firing.
Works of this era display clearer perspective, volumetric form, detailed drapery, and more expressive faces. Figures were depicted in a more naturalistic manner; damask patterns in textiles, gilded effects, and jewelry details were carefully painted. These developments brought stained glass closer to painting. In parallel with the ornamental richness of Gothic architecture, stained glass compositions became increasingly decorative. Historical themes were also introduced alongside religious narratives. For example, the Saint Louis series at Champigny-sur-Veude depicted episodes from the ruler’s life, showing the expanding narrative scope of stained glass.
Renaissance Influence and Classicism
From the late 15th century onward, the aesthetics of the Italian Renaissance began to influence stained glass in Northern Europe. Classical architectural motifs (columns, arches, friezes) were incorporated into compositions, and figurative representations achieved pictorial accuracy. Painted contours increasingly replaced lead lines, giving stained glass a more “painterly” quality.
In Italy, masters such as William of Marseilles and Giovanni da Udine were prominent, while in France, the Crabeth brothers applied classical forms to Gothic windows. Dramatic light-and-shadow effects, monumental figures, and architectural harmony became defining features. However, this transformation weakened stained glass’s relationship with light, as painting took precedence over glass itself.
Reformation and Secularization
The Protestant Reformation of the 16th century marked a sharp break in stained glass art. Protestantism adopted a reserved attitude toward religious imagery and visual representation in sacred spaces, leading to the removal or destruction of many stained glass windows. Large numbers of panels were lost, especially in reformist regions of Germany, England, and Switzerland.
During this period, stained glass survived primarily in secular contexts. Universities (such as Oxford and Cambridge), public buildings, and aristocratic residences became its new hosts. In these spaces, stained glass turned toward armorial motifs, portraiture, and allegorical compositions. Religious themes gave way to family lineages, symbolic figures, and textual ornamentation.
Technically, a decline in artistic quality is evident. Mass-produced molds, low-quality glass, and standardized schemes became widespread. Stained glass was increasingly commissioned on a “price per square meter” basis, resulting in diminished artistic standards.
Revival
In the post-Industrial Revolution era, stained glass experienced a revival beginning in the mid-19th century, particularly in England. This was closely tied to the renewed appreciation of Gothic art and nostalgia for medieval craftsmanship. The Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood, rejecting the industrialized and standardized art of their time, reinterpreted early techniques and iconography.
Artists such as Edward Burne-Jones, William Morris, and Dante Gabriel Rossetti turned to stained glass design, emphasizing figurative arrangements, Gothic iconography, and handcrafted methods. The Morris & Co. workshop reintroduced traditional production practices in both religious and secular projects, redefining stained glass as a craft.
Technical advances also accompanied this revival: glass paints became more chemically stable, and a wider range of colors and patterns became available. Nonetheless, the movement largely referenced the aesthetic codes of the past, functioning more as reproduction than innovation.
Modern and Contemporary Period
In the 20th century, stained glass underwent transformations both technical and conceptual. The Art Nouveau and Arts and Crafts movements incorporated organic, nature-inspired forms into designs, replacing rigid lines with fluid shapes. Important figures of this era include John La Farge and Louis Comfort Tiffany, who redefined the relationship between glass and light. Tiffany’s “favrile glass,” with its self-patterned surfaces, enhanced the depth and texture of stained glass.
Favrile Glass Vases by Louis Comfort Tiffany (flickr)
During this period, stained glass came to be viewed not only as part of architecture but also as an independent work of art. Abstract compositions, collage techniques on glass, and combinations with resin and metal became common. Traditional lead came was often replaced by copper foil and laminated glass applications.
Techniques of Stained Glass
The process of making stained glass consists of several stages: coloring, shaping, assembling the glass, and, when necessary, painting its surface. Although the methods vary across historical periods and technologies, the fundamental principle remains the same: combining colored glass pieces in a way that preserves their translucency. Stained glass techniques are closely tied to craftsmanship as well as to the physical properties of glass itself.
Coloring the Glass
The first step in stained glass production is obtaining colored glass. The most common method is adding metal oxides to the raw glass mixture (silica, soda, and lime). For example:
- Cobalt oxide → blue
- Chromium → green
- Gold chloride → red (especially for “ruby glass”)
- Silver nitrate → yellow tones (through the silver stain method)
Glass colored in this way is called pot-metal glass. Its color permeates the entire body of the glass. Another type, flashed glass, is made by fusing a thin layer of colored glass onto clear glass; designs or openings can then be created by etching or abrasion.
Cutting and Shaping the Glass
Prepared glass sheets are cut according to templates (cartoons) defined by the design. Traditionally, glass was cut with steel-tipped tools or broken by heating and cooling. Medieval artisans often fractured glass manually with hand tools, whereas modern practice uses precision cutters.
Once cut, the pieces are arranged according to the design, and H-shaped lead cames are placed around their edges. The H-section allows two pieces of glass to be joined securely.
Leading and Soldering
The lead cames surrounding the glass pieces serve as the main framework of the panel. To secure the structure, all joints are soldered with a tin–lead alloy, usually applied with a soldering iron. After soldering, putty is pressed between the glass and lead channels to strengthen the panel, make it watertight, and improve durability against external elements.
Surface Painting and Shading (Enamel and Grisaille)
Areas that require detail (faces, hands, fabric patterns, inscriptions, etc.) are painted directly onto the glass. The most common painting techniques include:
- Grisaille: A brown-black paint applied to the surface of glass, partially blocking light. It is used for outlines, shading, and decorative patterns.
- Silver stain: A silver nitrate-based paint. When fired, it produces yellow to golden tones on white glass. Widely used from the 14th century onward.
- Enamel: Transparent or semi-transparent colored paints based on metal oxides, fired onto the glass to become permanent.
After painting, the panels are fired in a kiln at about 600–700 °C. This process fuses the paint into the glass, making it durable and resistant to wear.
The Design Process and Cartoon Preparation
Producing stained glass requires a detailed design process. First, a rough sketch is made; then a full-scale cartoon is drawn. The cartoon shows the overall composition, including figures, colors, and the placement of lead lines. Glass pieces are cut according to sub-templates derived from this master drawing.
Alternative and Modern Techniques
Since the 20th century, in addition to traditional leaded stained glass, new methods have been developed:
- Copper foil: Popularized by Tiffany Studios, this method wraps thin copper strips around glass edges, which are then soldered. It is well-suited for fine, detailed work.
- Dalle de verre (faceted glass): Thick (3–4 cm) glass slabs set in concrete or epoxy resin, often used in modernist and abstract designs.
- Lamination and fusing: Layers of glass are fused together in a kiln to form a single piece, eliminating the need for lead lines.
- Sandblasting and acid etching: Used especially on flashed glass to create patterns or inscriptions by removing surface layers.
Notable Examples
Chartres Cathedral: Chartres houses one of the most comprehensive and best-preserved collections of medieval stained glass. The building contains 143 windows with around 1,850 figurative scenes. Among the most famous is the Blue Virgin (Notre-Dame de la Belle Verrière) panel. With its thick glass, deep colors, and medallion structure, it represents the technical and iconographic pinnacle of Gothic stained glass.
Chartres Cathedral (pixabay)
Canterbury Cathedral: One of the earliest examples of Gothic stained glass in England. The so-called Miracle Windows, depicting the lives and miracles of saints, stand out. Their medallion structure, iconography, and inscription bands reflect the narrative aesthetics of the period.
York Minster – Great East Window: Considered the largest medieval stained glass panel in England, this window contains 117 separate scenes, entirely based on the Book of Revelation (Apocalypse). Attributed to John Thornton, it stands as one of the most outstanding examples of Gothic stained glass, both for its technical detail and narrative richness.
Great East Window (flickr)
Arezzo Cathedral – Windows by Guillaume de Marcillat: Belonging to the Renaissance period, these windows adapt classical forms to Gothic window frames. Vivid colors, figurative expression, and architectural harmony are noteworthy. Giorgio Vasari famously described them as “not glass, but miracles descended from heaven.”
Gouda – St. Janskerk Windows: Designed by the brothers Dirck and Wouter Crabeth, these windows reflect post-Reformation approaches. They combine religious and historical subjects, incorporating Renaissance aesthetics with classical columns and a strong sense of perspective.
Champigny-sur-Veude – Saint Louis Series: An early example of stained glass devoted to historical figures. These panels narrate the life of Saint Louis (Louis IX), notable for their figurative density and sequential storytelling. The king’s elevation as a religious figure is vividly translated into the compositions.
Sainte-Chapelle: Commissioned by Louis IX, this chapel offers one of the most powerful spatial effects of stained glass. Its upper level contains 15 tall windows with more than 1,130 scenes from the Old and New Testaments. With slender lead lines, vivid colors, and dramatic use of light, it is regarded as the emblem of High Gothic style.
Sainte-Chapelle (pixabay)
Santa Maria Novella – Italian Renaissance Windows: These church windows combine classical architectural elements (pilasters, friezes, arches) with figurative representations. Created by Giovanni da Udine and his contemporaries, they emphasize painting techniques, translating Renaissance pictorial ideals onto glass.
John La Farge – Trinity Church: The American artist John La Farge pioneered modern stained glass techniques. His use of opal glass created depth effects and subtle color transitions. The windows of Trinity Church stand out for their volumetric figures that integrate harmoniously with light, making them key examples of modern stained glass.
Louis Comfort Tiffany – First Presbyterian Church: Tiffany’s innovative favrile glass technique embedded color within the body of the glass rather than applying it to the surface. By minimizing lead lines, he allowed the glass itself to carry the narrative. His work shaped both the technical and aesthetic directions of 20th-century stained glass.
