Steam Locomotive

A steam locomotive is a railway vehicle that generates mechanical energy by directing pressurized steam and converts this energy into motive power. At its core, water is converted into steam within a boiler heated by fuel (typically coal); the resulting steam is then transformed into motion through a piston or similar mechanism, causing the wheels to rotate. These machines, running on rails, have been used for both freight and passenger transportation due to their locomotive function.

The continuous supply of steam, controlled and generated through fuel combustion, made steam locomotives an indispensable component of transportation from the 19th century onward. This technology, rapidly spreading alongside the Industrial Revolution, became the primary power source for railway transport and played a key role in expanding international trade and increasing social mobility.

History of Steam Locomotives

Steam locomotives are significant technical instruments developed in the early 19th century as a product of the Industrial Revolution, bringing profound changes to transportation. Their fundamental principle lies in converting steam energy into mechanical motion. This advancement contributed to the simultaneous rise of coal, iron, and machinery industries, primarily in England and across Europe, leading to transformative shifts in transportation systems. Steam locomotives not only represented technological progress but also facilitated the reshaping of social, economic, and military structures.

The use of the “Rocket,” developed by George Stephenson in England, on the Liverpool–Manchester line in 1829 is widely regarded as the starting point of modern railway transportation. Initially employed to transport coal from mines to ports, the system was later adapted for intercity passenger service. Following England, railway networks were established and steam locomotives became widespread in industrialized nations such as France, Germany, Belgium, and the United States.

As railways expanded, steam locomotives played a vital role not only in urban and intercity transport but also in strengthening economic and administrative structures. They were actively used in numerous areas including the delivery of agricultural and mineral products to ports, accelerating domestic trade, and standardizing transportation. Additionally, they fulfilled important functions in military logistics, being employed to transport supplies and troops to the front lines during wartime.

By the first half of the 20th century, many countries began operating steam locomotives with local personnel; maintenance, repair, and partially even production processes became sustainable through domestic technical expertise. This development was regarded as a significant step toward technical independence.

Steam Locomotives in the Ottoman Empire and Türkiye

From the mid-19th century, the Ottoman Empire closely followed the development of industrial and railway technologies in Europe and took steps to transform its transportation systems. The use of steam locomotives on Ottoman territory must be understood as an essential part of this modernization process. Alongside the administrative and technical reforms introduced during the Tanzimat Era, railways were placed at the center of state policy, with the goal of enhancing economic, military, and administrative efficiency through improved transportation infrastructure.

The Izmir–Aydın line, construction of which began in 1856, is historically recognized as the first railway line on Ottoman territory. Built with British engineering and capital, it was completed in 1866, and the first steam locomotives began operating on the route. The Izmir–Aydın line was not merely a transportation project but also demonstrated the Ottoman Empire’s interest in and efforts to align with European technological advancements.

In the following years, new railway lines were constructed across various regions of the Ottoman Empire, beginning with the Rumelia Railways. These lines played crucial roles in facilitating internal transport and delivering agricultural and mineral products to ports. In addition to military logistics, the need for rapid communication between provincial centers and administrative hubs made steam locomotives strategically important.

During this period, the Ottoman Empire had not yet developed its own industrial infrastructure; therefore, steam locomotives as well as related materials such as rails, sleepers, wagons, and maintenance equipment were primarily imported from England, France, Germany, and Austria. However, this dependency on foreign sources was gradually addressed in subsequent years through goals of domestic production.

The structure of personnel employed in railway operations reflected the multi-ethnic and multi-religious character of Ottoman society. Senior management positions were predominantly held by Europeans, while technical and mid-level roles were filled largely by Ottoman Christians. Meanwhile, Muslim Ottoman citizens worked in field-based tasks such as maintenance, track construction, and train operations. This structure provides a characteristic example of labor distribution during the period.

The 93 War (1877–1878) and the Balkan Wars were periods during which the Ottoman railways suffered significant losses. Especially in Rumelia large portions of the railway lines were lost during these wars directly affecting the state’s transportation and logistics strategies. The fact that major investments made on these lines fell out of Ottoman control as a result of the wars led to unrecoverable costs and imposed additional financial burdens on the state treasury due to kilometer guarantees granted to foreign companies.

During World War I the Ottoman State heavily utilized its railways for military purposes with steam locomotives transporting troops and supplies behind the front lines. In an effort to operate the railway system more efficiently and sustainably the Shimendifer Officers School was established in 1915. This institution marked the first systematic step toward training local technical personnel.

The postwar period evolved into a new era for railway policy with the foundation of the Republic of Türkiye. The foundations laid during the Ottoman era became the starting point for the national transportation strategies of the Republic. Especially after the declaration of the Republic the railway network in Türkiye was expanded and steps toward locomotive production were institutionalized.

At this point the foundations of Türkiye Lokomotif ve Motor Sanayi A.Ş. (TÜLOMSAŞ) — an entity of major importance in Türkiye’s railway history and particularly in its local production process — trace back to the Cer Workshops established during the Ottoman period. This institutional continuity reflects the transfer of technical heritage and experience from the Ottoman era to the Republic. One of the earliest significant outcomes of this legacy occurred following a visit by Prime Minister Adnan Menderes to the Eskişehir Cer Workshops in 1957 which set a clear target. In 1961 the Karakurt produced in Eskişehir became the symbol of this process as Türkiye’s first domestically manufactured steam locomotive. With a power output of 1915 horsepower and a top speed of 70 km/h the Karakurt represented not only a technical achievement but also the culmination of Turkish engineering and labor.

A key figure behind all these developments is Behiç Erkin. During the Ottoman period he served in military roles and played an active part in organizing railway logistics during the Çanakkale War and the National Struggle. In the early years of the Republic he became the founder and first General Manager of State Railways. Simultaneously a diplomat and politician Behiç Erkin played a pioneering role in the institutionalization of Turkish railways and is therefore remembered as the “Father of Railways.” He was honored with the Grand National Assembly Citation and the Independence Medal for his contributions during the War of Independence.

The process that began in the Ottoman period with the import and use of steam locomotives was combined during the Republic period with technical knowledge industrial infrastructure and institutional memory enabling Türkiye to reach the stage of producing its own locomotives and railway system. These developments demonstrate how the railway vision inherited from the Ottoman era was transformed into a planned and national transportation strategy during the Republic.

Türkiye’s First Domestic Steam Locomotive: Karakurt

One of the turning points in Türkiye’s railway history was the production in 1961 of the Karakurt the country’s first domestically manufactured steam locomotive. Built entirely through the efforts of Turkish engineers and workers at the Eskişehir Railway Factory this locomotive marked the beginning of domestic railway vehicle production.

Production Decision and Initiation of the Process

By the late 1950s Türkiye was heavily dependent on imports for locomotives and railcars used in railway transport. However the experience gained in railway operations the strengthening of maintenance and repair infrastructure and the training of technical personnel turned the idea of domestic production into a concrete goal. In 1958 the Eskişehir Cer Workshops were reorganized as the Eskişehir Railway Factory and planning and engineering work began for the manufacture of the first domestic locomotive.

During the three-year production process all major components of the locomotive were manufactured domestically. Production of the boiler body axle assembly braking system and tender was carried out in different manufacturing units of the factory. Thus Türkiye achieved the capacity to produce complete locomotives not merely perform maintenance and repair using its own resources.

Technical Specifications

The Karakurt is a five-axle steam locomotive with a 1E axle arrangement. It has a track gauge of 1435 millimeters and an operating weight of 106.9 tons. The locomotive measures 22900 millimeters from buffer to buffer. Its main driving wheels have a diameter of 1450 millimeters while the guide wheels measure 850 millimeters. The axle load is 19.5 tons and the distance between axles is 1500 millimeters.

The Karakurt has a tractive effort of 18500 kilogram-force and a cylinder diameter of 660 millimeters. Its boiler operates at a steam pressure of 16 technical atmosphere units (atü) and produces 1915 horsepower. Equipped with a Knorr steam brake system its tender has a capacity of 20 tons of coal 29 tons of water and 11 tons of fuel. After production it remained in active service for 25 years hauling both freight and passengers.

Principles of Operation of Steam Locomotives

Steam locomotives operate on the principle of converting heat obtained from fuel into steam which is then transformed into mechanical motion. Coal the primary energy source of the locomotive is burned in a specialized chamber called the boiler. The heat released during this process causes the water inside the boiler to evaporate into steam. This high-pressure steam is directed through a compartment known as the steam chest into the cylinders.

The steam in the cylinders drives the pistons in a reciprocating linear motion. This linear motion is converted into rotary motion through the crank and connecting rod mechanism and transmitted to the wheels, thereby propelling the locomotive. After completing its function, the steam is released into the atmosphere through the exhaust chimney. This system operates as an open-cycle steam cycle, not a closed one.

The locomotive’s boiler not only produces steam but also houses auxiliary equipment such as water feed systems, safety valves, and pressure gauges. If the water level is not properly maintained, serious hazards such as boiler dry-out and subsequent boiler explosion may occur. Therefore, operating a steam locomotive requires technical knowledge and careful attention.

The steam locomotives used in Ottoman territories operated according to this same fundamental principle and were managed in accordance with European technical systems. The majority of imported locomotives were sourced from England, France, Germany, and Austria, and their technical specifications and operational arrangements were fully adopted by Ottoman railway administrations.

Technical Components of Steam Locomotives

Steam locomotives are complex systems composed of specific technical components that enable their fundamental operation. These systems are organized to facilitate the process of converting heat from fuel combustion into steam, and steam into mechanical motion. The key technical components of steam locomotives are as follows:

Boiler: The central element of the steam locomotive. Fuels such as coal are burned here to boil the water inside the boiler. The resulting steam forms the primary source of mechanical power that drives the locomotive.

Cylinders and Pistons: High-pressure steam generated in the boiler is directed into the cylinders. The steam within the cylinders moves the pistons back and forth in a linear motion. This linear motion represents the first physical stage in converting energy into locomotive movement.

Crank and Connecting Rod Mechanism: The linear motion of the pistons is converted into rotary (circular) motion through this mechanism. This rotational motion is transmitted to the wheels, enabling the locomotive to move along the rails.

Wheel Set and Frame: This system transfers the mechanical motion generated by the steam to the ground and also ensures the locomotive moves smoothly and controllably along the tracks.

Exhaust System: Steam that has completed its function is expelled to the outside through the exhaust chimney. This process is essential for the continuous operation of the system.

Coal Bunker and Water Tank: Located at the rear of the locomotive, these compartments store fuel and water. Continuous operation requires regular replenishment of fuel (mostly coal) and water.

The technical components of steam locomotives used in the Ottoman Empire generally corresponded to those found in standard locomotive models imported from England, France, Germany and Austria. Due to the limited domestic engineering infrastructure, all these components were operated based on foreign technical knowledge, and maintenance and repair procedures were also carried out by personnel sourced from abroad.

Impact of Steam Locomotives on the Modern Railway System

Steam locomotives, which operated on the principle of converting steam into mechanical energy, were first used in 1825 on the Stockton-Darlington line in England. Developed by George Stephenson, this locomotive traveled at a speed of 20 kilometers per hour, and this success triggered rapid expansion of railway construction worldwide.

Steam locomotives elevated railway transport above other forms of land transportation and significantly increased capacity for both freight and passenger movement. This development created the foundation for the rapid expansion of railway lines connecting industrial regions to ports in countries such as England, France, Germany, Belgium and the United States. Indeed, the world’s total railway length, which stood at 38,600 kilometers in 1850, reached 108,000 kilometers by 1860, 209,000 kilometers by 1870, 372,500 kilometers by 1880 and 616,200 kilometers by 1890.

Thanks to steam locomotives, railways became not only a means of transport but also the primary instrument of economic exploitation, centralized administrative control and military mobility. For example, Britain used its railway investments in India to transport the country’s natural resources to global markets and suppressed India’s own domestic production. This demonstrates how railways were also used by imperial powers as tools of economic control.

In the Ottoman Empire as well, steam locomotives were utilized to enhance the state’s military and administrative control over its provinces. Railways in Ottoman territories established direct connections with Europe and integrated the empire into the global economy. By 1914, the railway network spanning over 12,000 kilometers within Ottoman lands stood as evidence of this development.

Although electric trains, first introduced in America in 1895, gradually replaced steam locomotives with electric and diesel models, steam systems formed the foundational building block of railway transportation. By the early 20th century, when the world’s total railway length reached 1,110,000 kilometers, the decisive role played by steam locomotives in this growth was clearly evident.