Thailand

Thailand is a country located in Southeast Asia, east of the Indian subcontinent, centered around the Mekong River basin and the Chao Phraya Delta. It is bordered by Myanmar and Laos to the north, Laos and Cambodia to the east, Malaysia to the south, and the Andaman Sea to the west. With an area of 513,115 km², the country has a population of 65,951,210 and its capital is Bangkok. It is divided into 76 provinces (changwat) and the special administrative region of Bangkok, totaling 77 administrative units. The official language is Thai and the currency is the Thai Baht. Thailand has a tropical monsoon climate with an average annual temperature of approximately 28°C.

Thailand is governed as a constitutional monarchy. The head of state is the king, who represents the monarchy; however, executive power is exercised by the prime minister and the cabinet. Since 1932, the country has been governed under a multi-party parliamentary system, in which the military has maintained significant influence over politics. The current political structure is formed by a coalition government led by the Pheu Thai Party following the 2023 general elections.

National Anthem

Thailand’s national anthem, Phleng Chat Thai, was first adopted in 1932. It was introduced during the transition from absolute monarchy to constitutional monarchy and later revised in 1939 and 1945. The current version is based on the 1945 revision. The national anthem is played daily at 08.00 and 18.00 in public areas, and the public is expected to stand in respect during its performance.

Flag

The Thai flag consists of five horizontal stripes. The outer red stripes represent the nation, the inner white stripes represent religion, and the central thick navy blue stripe represents the monarchy. The flag was officially adopted in 1917 and is also known as “Trairanga” (Three Colors). The flag and anthem are among the primary symbols of the Thai nation and are used as emblems of national identity and loyalty.

History

Early Period and the Nanzhao Kingdom

Information on the early history of the Thai people is primarily derived from regions outside modern-day Thailand, especially Yunnan in southern China. No original Thai sources from this period exist; historical knowledge is largely transmitted through Chinese records, local legends, and traditions. The manuscript History of the Southern Princes, written in 1537 and revised in 1776, is one of the principal sources on early Thai history.

In Chinese sources, the Thai people were referred to by various names including “Hsi-nan,” “P’u-jen,” “Tüen-jen,” and “Lu-chwe,” while the Thais themselves identified as “Tai” and their land as “Nanzhao.” Originally inhabiting mountain villages in western Yunnan, the Tai gradually interacted with other groups and developed a political structure. According to Chinese records, the Tai people are mentioned as early as the semi-legendary Xia Dynasty, dated to approximately 2205 BCE.

The Nanzhao Kingdom, established in Yunnan between 649 and 902, played a crucial role in shaping Thai identity. With its capital at Dali, the kingdom promoted Buddhism, constructed temples, and supported religious practices with state backing. The ruling elite included Tai-origin monarchs, and the majority of the population were Tai. Nanzhao developed political relations with China and Tibet and emerged as a regional power. The kingdom was destroyed in 1253 by the Mongol invasion led by Kublai Khan, an event that triggered the migration of the Tai people into Southeast Asia.

The Sukhothai and Ayutthaya Periods

Following the migration of the Tai people, the first organized political structure on Thai territory was the Sukhothai Kingdom. Founded under the leadership of Sri Indradit in 1238, it gained strength by capturing Angkor. During the reign of King Ramkhamhaeng (1275–1317), significant administrative and legal reforms were implemented, the Thai script was developed, and a strong military was established. After the king’s death, Sukhothai weakened and was succeeded by the Ayutthaya Kingdom, founded in 1350 around the Chao Phraya River.

Ayutthaya expanded its control over Sukhothai territories and brought Lanna and other Tai city-states under its dominance. It captured Angkor in 1432 and controlled the Tenasserim coast by the 1540s. During the reign of King Trailok (1448–1488), a feudal administrative system was adopted, and foreign trade and diplomacy flourished. In the 16th century, Ayutthaya faced threats from Burma and was forced to pay tribute in 1569. King Narasuen, who ascended the throne in 1590, restored the kingdom’s strength.

Ayutthaya established intensive trade relations with China, India, Iran, and the Arab world, becoming a hub for Muslim and European merchants. During the reign of King Narai (1657–1688), European influence at court increased, but declined after 1688. The kingdom was destroyed in 1767 by a Burmese invasion and was succeeded by a brief transitional regime centered in Thonburi.

The Chakkri Dynasty and the Bangkok Era

In 1782, General Chao Phraya Chakkri ascended the throne as King Rama I, founding the Chakkri Dynasty and moving the capital to Bangkok. During the reigns of Rama II and Rama III (1809–1851), borders were expanded and trade agreements were concluded with Britain. Relations with Western states intensified during the reign of Rama IV (1851–1868), initiating the modernization process.

During the reign of Rama V (Chulalongkorn, 1868–1910), slavery was abolished and comprehensive reforms were carried out in law, education, transportation, and administration. In 1909, a treaty with Britain ceded certain territories in the Malay Peninsula to Britain, while Patani and Satun were incorporated into Thailand. During this period, Thailand preserved its independence as a buffer state between British and French colonial territories.

Transition to Constitutional Monarchy and the Modern Era

In the 20th century, Rama VI introduced compulsory education. During the reign of Rama VII (1925–1935), demands for a constitution grew. In 1932, a military coup ended absolute monarchy and established a constitutional monarchy. Rama VIII, who ascended the throne in 1935, died in 1946 and was succeeded by Rama IX (Bhumibol Adulyadej).

During the premiership of Phibul Songgram in 1938, the country’s name was changed from Siam to Thailand. During World War II, Thailand allied with Japan; after the war, Pridi Phanomyang, a leader of the anti-Japanese resistance, became prime minister. Rama IX, crowned in 1950, became the longest-reigning monarch in Thai history.

During the Cold War, Thailand established close relations with the United States and sided with the Western bloc in the Korean and Vietnam Wars. It joined SEATO in 1954 and served as a base for U.S. air operations during the 1960s. SEATO was officially dissolved in 1979.

Military Interventions and Political Developments

Thailand has experienced numerous military coups since 1947. Student movements in 1973 paved the way for a transition to civilian rule, but military interventions resumed in 1976 and 1977. In 1991 the military seized power again, and in 1997 a new constitution aimed at democratization was adopted. In 2006 Prime Minister Thaksin Shinawatra was removed from office, and another coup occurred in 2014 under the leadership of General Prayut Chan-o-cha.

The new constitution enacted in 2017 established the framework for a transition from military oversight to civilian rule. In 2019 Prayut continued in office as civilian prime minister. In the 2023 elections, a coalition government led by the Pheu Thai Party appointed Paetongtarn, daughter of Thaksin Shinawatra, as prime minister.

Geography

Geographical Location

Thailand is a landlocked country in Southeast Asia. Located at the center of the Indochinese Peninsula, it shares land borders with Myanmar (Burma) to the north and west, Laos to the northeast and east, Cambodia to the east, and Malaysia to the south. It also has coastlines along the Andaman Sea to the southwest and the South China Sea via the Gulf of Thailand to the southeast.

Thailand has an area of approximately 513,120 square kilometers. The country has a narrow, elongated shape extending from north to south. Mountainous regions in the north merge with extensive alluvial plains in the central region. Central Thailand is the country’s most important agricultural zone. The Chao Phraya River, which flows through this region, extends to Bangkok, and its delta is one of the most densely populated areas in the country.

Landforms

Mountains, Plains and Valleys

The northern and western regions of Thailand contain mountainous areas that include the country’s highest peaks. These ranges form a natural boundary between Thailand and Myanmar. The mountainous regions are covered by natural forests and bordered by narrow alluvial valleys. The highest point is Doi Inthanon Mountain at an elevation of 2,565 meters. Southern Thailand also features hilly and mountainous terrain, where rubber production and tropical fruit cultivation are practiced.

The central region of Thailand consists of a vast and fertile plain formed by the Chao Phraya River. This plain, due to its alluvial soil structure, is the country’s most important agricultural area and is known as the “Rice Bowl of Asia.” Bangkok, the country’s administrative, commercial and political center, is also located in this region.

Narrow valleys between the mountainous areas in the north are enriched by alluvial deposits, making them suitable for agriculture. These valleys have also contributed to the development of settlements.

Rivers and Lakes

The main river system in Thailand is the Chao Phraya River. It sustains the alluvial plain in the central region and serves as the primary source of agricultural production. The Khorat Plateau in the northeast is bordered by the Mekong River, which forms the boundary between Thailand and Laos and shapes the country’s eastern geography.

One of the country’s significant lakes is Songkhla Lake in the south, covering an area of approximately 1,290 square kilometers. This lake is important both ecologically and economically for local communities.

Climate and Vegetation

Thailand lies within the tropical monsoon climate zone. Temperatures remain high throughout the year, and the seasons are divided into three main periods: hot season, rainy season and cool season. These periods are shaped by the Southeast Asian monsoon cycle.

The rainy season typically begins in May under the influence of southwest monsoons and lasts until October. During this period, heavy rainfall occurs over much of the country, especially along the southern coasts. The cool season, from November to February, is the driest and relatively the most temperate period of the year. The hot season occurs in March and April, when temperatures reach their highest levels.

Thailand’s vegetation varies according to climatic conditions. Monsoon forests are widespread across much of the country. These forests consist of deciduous trees that green during seasonal rains and shed their leaves during dry periods. Mangrove forests are found along coastal areas. Tropical rainforests are dense in mountainous regions. In arid zones, scrubland and sparse tree cover dominate.

In regions where agriculture is widespread, the natural vegetation has largely been replaced by agricultural land.

Natural Resources and Energy

Thailand is a country with diverse underground reserves. Its main minerals are zinc gypsum and lignite. Lignite is an important source for energy production, and the country has approximately 1.4 billion tons of recoverable coal reserves.

Petroleum and natural gas play a significant role in Thailand’s energy sources. Exploration activities in the Gulf of Thailand have identified proven petroleum reserves of 453 million barrels. These reserves include not only crude oil but also liquid natural gas components. Natural gas reserves have been estimated at 300.15 billion cubic meters. In addition, it is estimated that further natural gas and petroleum reserves exist in an area of approximately 2,600 square kilometers, although sovereignty over this maritime area remains disputed between Thailand and Cambodia. Negotiations regarding this maritime zone have been ongoing for a long time between the two countries.

As of 2023, Thailand’s daily crude oil production reached 409,000 barrels, ranking it 30th globally in terms of production volume. In the same year, annual natural gas production amounted to approximately 30 billion cubic meters, placing Thailand 24th globally with a 1 percent share.

Of Thailand’s total land area, 27.5 percent consists of agricultural land, 25 percent is forested, and 34 percent is classified as other unclassified areas. The most agriculturally productive region is the Central Plains belt of the country. Crops such as maize cassava cotton and pineapple are cultivated in upland areas while rubber production is concentrated in the southern regions. Rice cultivation holds a significant position, with approximately half of all arable land dedicated to rice paddies. Over the past 30 years the area of arable land has increased by about 20 million hectares. This increase has been achieved primarily through expansion of cultivated areas rather than through improved productivity. However factors such as urbanization and soil salinization are expected to reduce arable land over time.

In terms of water resources Thailand is among the countries experiencing a decline in renewable freshwater resources per capita. Between 2011 and 2021 freshwater availability per capita decreased by 4 percent and stood at 3.13 cubic meters in 2021.

Thailand promotes diversity in energy production and natural resource utilization and is taking steps to harness its potential to meet domestic consumption needs and enhance energy security.

Energy and Transportation Infrastructure

Thailand’s energy infrastructure is largely based on electricity generation and energy imports. Electricity production across the country is carried out by the state-owned Electricity Generating Authority of Thailand (EGAT) and the private sector. Thailand relies on various fossil fuels particularly natural gas and hydroelectric power plants for energy production. Energy demand continues to rise and as a result the country has become increasingly dependent on imports to ensure energy security. Various strategies are also being developed for alternative energy sources with particular investments being made in renewable resources such as biomass and solar energy.

The transportation infrastructure is supported by an extensive network of roads railways waterways and air transport. Bangkok in particular serves as Thailand’s transportation hub.

Road networks have developed through a system of highways connecting various regions of the country. The government places great importance on road construction to support both rural and intercity transportation.

Rail transport is operated by the state-owned State Railway of Thailand (SRT). In recent years high-speed rail projects have gained prominence with infrastructure investments planned in cooperation with China. Additionally Bangkok employs modern urban transit systems such as the MRT (metro) and the BTS Skytrain.

In terms of air transport, Thailand is one of Asia’s major aviation hubs. The Suvarnabhumi International Airport in the capital Bangkok handles intensive regional and global flight traffic. The country hosts numerous international and domestic airports.

Maritime transport holds strategic importance for both commercial and tourist mobility. Bordered by the Andaman Sea and the Gulf of Thailand, the country provides a significant logistics network through its various ports for international trade.

Economy

Thailand is among the developing economies of Southeast Asia. The country has an export-oriented economic structure. The Thai economy exhibits a diversified structure driven by strong industrial production, agricultural exports, and a growing services sector. In particular, the manufacturing sector makes a substantial contribution to the country’s gross domestic product (GDP). Energy demand is largely met through imports.

Key Economic Indicators

Since the 1980s, the Thai economy has shifted from an agriculture-based structure toward industry and services, and today it continues its transformation in line with digital economy and green development goals. Under the “Industry 4.0” framework, Thailand has prioritized digitalization and high-value-added manufacturing as strategic focus areas. Additionally, under the “bio-circular-green economy” model, sectors such as agriculture and food, health services, energy and biochemicals, tourism, and the creative economy have gained priority status.

In 2024, Thailand’s nominal GDP was recorded at approximately $526.5 billion.^【1】 This figure is projected to reach $558.6 billion by 2025. Per capita national income is estimated at $7,493 in 2024 and $7,942 in 2025.^【2】 The real GDP growth rate is forecast at 2.5% for 2024 and 2.0% for 2025.

Consumer price inflation averaged 0.4% in 2024 and is expected to remain at 0.2% in 2025. The unemployment rate stood at 1% in both years. The current account balance as a percentage of GDP is projected at 2.5% in 2024 and 1.7% in 2025.^【3】

The ratio of general government gross debt to GDP reached 63.2% in 2024 and is forecast to rise to 64.9% in 2025.^【4】

These indicators reflect Thailand’s economy, characterized by low unemployment, stable growth performance, controlled inflation, and a trade surplus. Additionally, as of 2025, Thailand is the 31st largest economy in the world in nominal terms.

Sectoral Distribution

The agricultural sector, traditionally a cornerstone of the Thai economy, now holds a declining share but continues to provide employment for large rural populations. Rice is the country’s most important agricultural product, produced intensively in the fertile plains surrounding the Chao Phraya River. Tropical fruits, rubber, palm oil, and sugarcane are also significant agricultural exports. Livestock activities primarily serve domestic consumption.

The industrial sector plays a dominant role in Thailand’s economic growth. Key industries include automotive, electronics, food processing, textiles, and petrochemicals. The automotive industry, in particular, has positioned Thailand as “Detroit of Asia,” with production expanding for both domestic consumption and export. Thailand also serves as a regional manufacturing hub for major multinational corporations. Production of electronics and digital hardware has increased significantly in recent years.

Within Thailand’s services sector, tourism is one of the most dynamic areas. Thanks to its natural beauty and cultural richness, the country has become a major international tourist destination. The financial system is supported by a well-developed banking infrastructure, centered in Bangkok, with banking and insurance sectors operating under modern regulatory frameworks.

Foreign Trade

Thailand has a highly open economy in terms of foreign trade. Major export items include electronic goods, automobiles and spare parts, food products, and agricultural raw materials. Imports are concentrated in energy, industrial inputs, and high-technology products. Thailand maintains close trade relations with ASEAN countries, with China, Japan, the United States, and the European Union among its principal trading partners.

Demographics and Education

As of 2025, Thailand’s total population is 65,951,210. The population growth rate has declined significantly in recent years, with an aging population structure and falling fertility rates becoming prominent. The median age has risen, and the fertility rate has fallen below the level required for population replacement. This situation has placed Thailand in the advanced stages of the demographic transition.

Thailand’s population is geographically unevenly distributed. The most densely populated region is the central area encompassing the capital Bangkok and its surroundings. Urbanization in Thailand is increasing, with internal migration continuing from rural areas to urban centers.

Bangkok, as the country’s economic, administrative, and transportation hub, attracts substantial migration, while rural areas such as the northeastern region experience population loss.

The majority of Thailand’s population consists of Tai peoples. In addition, Thai people of Chinese origin constitute a significant minority within the country’s population. The population of Chinese descent plays an influential role in the economic life especially in urban areas. Furthermore, various upland ethnic groups such as the Karen Hmong Lahu and Akha are present in the northern regions. In the south Muslim communities of Malay origin represent a notable proportion of the population.

Low fertility rates and an aging population in Thailand are generating demographic trends that could lead to a shrinking labor supply in the long term. To mitigate this process the government has turned to migrant labor and migrants from neighboring countries such as Myanmar Cambodia and Laos are employed primarily in construction agriculture and service sectors. However this migration flow has also created certain challenges regarding social and economic integration.

Religious Distribution

The most widespread religion in Thailand is Buddhism. Approximately 93 percent of the population adheres to Theravada Buddhism. Buddhism is a fundamental element of Thai identity and cultural structure. The Muslim minority population concentrated in the southern regions is predominantly of Malay origin and follows Islam. Christianity Hinduism and various local beliefs are also represented in smaller proportions.

Education

Thailand’s education system is supervised by the central government. The Ministry of Education is responsible for curriculum teacher assignments and institutional organization. According to the Thai Constitution education is compulsory and free for all citizens. Basic education lasts twelve years encompassing six years of primary school three years of lower secondary school and three years of upper secondary school.

The higher education system in the country has also expanded. Public and private universities are spread across various regions of the country with Bangkok as the main hub. Chulalongkorn University Thammasat University and Mahidol University are among Thailand’s leading higher education institutions.

In addition there are specialized educational institutions for those pursuing military careers. Officer candidates receive training at institutions such as the Armed Forces Academies Preparatory School AFAPS where they establish early connections with other security organizations.

Regional disparities and urban-rural differences in education are notable. Schools in and around Bangkok generally have better physical infrastructure and teaching resources. In rural areas qualified teaching staff and educational facilities remain limited.

Culture and Tourism

Thailand’s cultural structure has historically been shaped around monarchy Buddhism and traditional values of the Tai people. Social values are based on principles of hierarchy respect and harmony. In particular the reverence for the royal family and religious institutions defines the core norms of Thai society. Showing respect to Buddhist monks the elderly and state officials is a cultural obligation. The concept of social balance known as “not losing face” leads individuals to avoid conflict in social interactions.

Literature

Traditional Thai literature is largely religious in content. A significant portion of literary production is directly or indirectly linked to Buddhism and Hinduism. Cultural elements acquired by the Tai people before their migration from southern China were reshaped through Buddhism and reflected in literature. Traditional Thai literature is typically composed in poetic form with emotional narratives expressed through various metrical structures.

Literature is divided into two main categories: written and oral literature. Oral literature consists of folk tales legends epics and poems. Written literature developed primarily within court circles. Thai literature includes texts that reflect both popular and courtly culture. Major works in Thai literature include:

• Khun Chang Khun Phaen: This work centers on a dramatic love story involving one woman and two men. The narrative intertwines themes of love sorrow and humor. It also contains extensive information about traditional Thai beliefs and social life. The work is regarded as an important example of the artistic expressions of the Thai language and has been translated into English and French.

• Ramakien: This epic was inspired by the Indian Ramayana. While Ramakien includes different scenes and details from the original Ramayana it shares thematic connections with versions from India Malaysia Java and Cambodia. It contains culturally adapted sections unique to Thai tradition. Ramakien is one of the foundational sources in Thai literature from religious cultural and artistic perspectives. An English translation of the work is available.

• Inao: Inao is a Thai adaptation of a Javanese folk narrative. Written in Thai the work features high linguistic sophistication and literary expression. It was composed for dramatic performance and is also used in theatrical arts.

• Phra Aphai Mani: This work was written by one of Thailand’s renowned poets. Its subject is a fictional tale of love and adventure. The poem includes passages reflecting popular perceptions of Europeans in the 19th century. Written in verse it exhibits strong elements of imaginative storytelling. A short English translation of the work is available.

In modern Thai literature, prose (narrative writing) has increasingly been adopted under the influence of Western literature.

Performing Arts

Thai performing arts constitute a multifaceted cultural domain shaped by religious beliefs, folk traditions, and royal court influences. Buddhism, alongside Hinduism and animist beliefs, has played a significant role in their development. This art form represents an important cultural heritage that reflects Thai society’s social structure, moral values, and aesthetic understanding. Thai performing arts are examined under two main categories: music and song, and dramatic arts and theater.

Thai music features a diatonic scale similar to Chinese music. It does not distinguish between major and minor modes as in Western music. Thai music is characterized by its unique melodic sequences. Music is used in religious ceremonies and traditional festivals to reinforce spiritual feelings and strengthen social bonds. It is performed in two main types:

• Ceremonial music: Used in religious rituals and traditional ceremonies.
• Entertainment music: Performed at folk festivals and public shows.

Traditional Thai musical instruments include the pin (stringed instrument), can (reed wind instrument), wooden xylophone, flute, and fiddle. Additionally, oral musical forms such as lullabies are part of the traditional repertoire.

Thai dramatic arts rely on storytelling through bodily movement, vocal expression, dance, music, and props. Traditional performances are largely rooted in ritual practices.

Visual Arts

Thai visual arts have evolved over historical periods through interaction with religious beliefs, environmental conditions, and neighboring cultures. Visual arts constitute a vital cultural domain that reflects the society’s religious values, aesthetic sensibilities, and cultural identity.

Architecture

Thai architecture is distinguished by its traditional styles, particularly evident in temples (wat) and palace structures. Classical architecture features two primary building types:

1. Rectangular-plan structures: Contain a single large hall. Roofs are sloped, multi-tiered, and typically have three or five levels.
2. Structures resembling a Greek cross: Feature a central cubic hall with projecting porticos on four sides. Above them rises a pyramidal ornamentation.

Roofs are covered with colorful ceramic tiles. Facade decorations incorporate gold leaf and colored glass mosaics, creating a luminous effect under sunlight. Notable examples include the Emerald Buddha Temple, Wat Benchamabophit, Wat Suthat Thepwararam, and Wat Pho in Bangkok.

Painting

Traditional Thai painting developed primarily in the form of wall murals. These paintings adorn the interior walls of temples and predominantly depict the life of the Buddha and the Jataka tales. Figures in traditional Thai paintings are rendered in conventionalized forms. Western techniques such as perspective and shading are not employed. Simplicity and narrative clarity dominate the compositions.

Cultural Heritage and Preservation

UNESCO World Heritage Sites include the ruins of former capitals such as Ayutthaya and Sukhothai. These sites are notable for their architectural monuments and urban planning that document the historical development of Thai kingdoms. Additionally, the Ban Chiang archaeological site hosts some of the most significant prehistoric findings in Southeast Asia.

Historical structures and archaeological sites are concentrated especially around the Chao Phraya River and in northern regions. Buddhist temples, palace complexes, and ancient city ruins reflect the historical evolution of Thai architecture and art.

Museums and cultural institutions serve the function of preserving and promoting cultural heritage. The National Museum in Bangkok possesses an extensive collection related to Thailand’s history, art, and archaeological remains. Additionally, local cultural centers conduct educational and promotional activities in fields such as traditional crafts, music, and dance.

Culinary culture

The diversity of plant products and food production capacity have made Thailand one of the leading countries in world cuisine. Tropical fruits, rice, a variety of vegetables, and spices are widely consumed in the country. As of 2023, Thailand ranks among the top 15 countries globally in food exports and stands out as a major global center for food production and export.

Thai cuisine; its unique character is defined by a balanced combination of sweet, sour, salty, and spicy flavors. Sauces, fresh herbs, coconut milk, lemongrass, coriander, and fish sauce form the essential components of Thai dishes.

Traditional dishes and notable flavors

Thai cuisine offers a distinctive range of flavors through its rich agricultural products, tropical fruits, and aromatic herbs. The information provided emphasizes Thailand’s position among the world’s leading food producers and highlights how this production capacity directly influences its culinary traditions.

• Pad Thai: One of Thailand’s most famous dishes, Pad Thai is prepared with rice noodles, egg, tofu or shrimp, peanuts, bean sprouts, and lime. It is characterized by a balanced blend of sweet, salty, sour, and spicy flavors.

• Tom Yum: A spicy and sour shrimp soup, Tom Yum is made with lemongrass, kaffir lime leaves, galangal (a type of ginger), chili peppers, and shrimp. It reflects the aromatic profile of Thai cuisine.

• Som Tum: Known as green papaya salad, this dish is prepared by pounding raw papaya with tomatoes, carrots, peanuts, dried shrimp, chili peppers, and lime juice.

• Massaman Curry: This curry, influenced by Indian cuisine, includes beef, potatoes, coconut milk, cinnamon, cardamom, and peanuts, combining spicy and sweet elements.

• Green Curry (Gaeng Keow Wan): Made with green curry paste, coconut milk, chicken or seafood, Thai eggplant, and fresh basil.

• Khao Pad: Thai-style fried rice, typically prepared with chicken, shrimp, or meat, and served with lime, cucumber, and chili sauce.

• Khao Niew Ma Muang: This sweet and tropical dessert features sticky rice sweetened with coconut milk, served with slices of fresh mango.

• Satay: Marinated meat skewers (usually chicken), grilled over charcoal and served with peanut sauce.

• Nam Tok and Larb: These dishes are meat salads from northeastern Thai cuisine, typically prepared with lime juice, chili peppers, toasted rice powder, and fresh herbs.

• Thai Omelette (Khai Jiao): An egg dish fried in abundant oil and commonly served with rice, it is a quick street food favorite.

Tourism Sector

Tailand is one of the most visited countries in Southeast Asia. Centers such as Bangkok, Chiang Mai, Phuket, Pattaya and Krabi stand out for both cultural and beach tourism.

A significant portion of tourists arriving in Thailand come from Asia-Pacific countries, including China, India, Malaysia, South Korea and Japan. Additionally, long-haul tourists from Europe and the United States are drawn to the country’s historical sites, spa centers and natural parks.

The tourist profile is increasingly oriented toward health tourism and religious/historical heritage tourism. Cities such as Bangkok, Chiang Mai and Pattaya are notable for their advanced private hospitals and service infrastructure in the field of health tourism.

The tourism sector is a major source of income for Thailand’s economy. Foreign exchange earnings from tourism contribute to the country’s trade balance and generate employment. Many sectors, including accommodation, transportation, food and beverage, and entertainment, are directly linked to tourism.

Tourism Policies

The Thai government continues to invest in infrastructure and promotional campaigns to develop the tourism sector. Expansions in transportation infrastructure, such as new airports and high-speed rail projects, aim to improve tourist access to the country.

The Ministry of Tourism and its affiliated agencies implement various initiatives to promote sustainable tourism. Protecting cultural heritage sites, reducing environmental impacts and ensuring local communities benefit from tourism revenues are key focuses of these policies.

Tourist Regions and Attractions

Tourism activities in Thailand are heavily concentrated in specific hub cities. The capital, Bangkok, serves as both the administrative and tourism center of the country. The city offers a diverse tourist appeal through modern shopping malls, street markets and temples. Bangkok is also the primary entry point for international tourists arriving in Thailand.

Chiang Mai is distinguished by its historical character, mountainous landscape and traditional festivals. Located in northern Thailand, it is one of the main centers of cultural tourism. Temples, traditional craft workshops and nearby ethnic communities are among the primary attractions for visitors.

Phuket, located in southern Thailand, is the country’s most famous coastal destination. It is a central hub for marine tourism, known for its white sandy beaches, diving centers and resort hotels. Krabi and Pattaya are also popular destinations with well-developed coastal tourism infrastructure.

Many regions of the country feature national parks and nature conservation areas. These parks offer nature-based activities such as camping, safari and birdwatching for both domestic and international tourists. Additionally, natural formations such as waterfalls, caves and hot springs in certain areas hold significant tourist value.

Foreign Policy and Security

Thailand’s foreign policy has historically focused on maintaining a balance among major powers. This approach became particularly prominent from the late 19th century onward, as Western colonial powers expanded their influence in Southeast Asia. Thailand (formerly known as Siam) was the only country in the region to preserve its independence while other nations were colonized.

During the Cold War, Thailand developed close relations with the Western Bloc and strengthened defense cooperation with the United States. During this period, Thailand was viewed as a regional ally in the fight against communism. The country was among the founding members of ASEAN and contributed to regional stability and cooperation.

In the 21st century, Thailand has continued to pursue a foreign policy that emphasizes multilateral diplomacy and economic relations. Economic ties have developed with People's Republic of China; at the same time, strategic partnerships have been maintained with countries such as the United States, Japan, and South Korea. However, Thailand’s foreign policy has been influenced by domestic political developments; military coups and the civil-military balance have at times created uncertainty in international relations.

As of 2024, Thailand’s foreign policy particularly highlights border security, defense cooperation, and the preservation of regional peace. The Thai government maintains a pragmatic approach in its relations with neighboring countries and closely monitors instability in border regions, such as developments along the Myanmar border. Additionally, indirect influences of foreign policy orientations can be observed in defense and security appointments.

Bilateral Relations

Thailand’s foreign policy has historically been based on a balancing act with major powers and the cultivation of multilateral relationships. The country especially focuses on bilateral relations with neighboring states in areas such as economic cooperation, security issues, and border management.

People’s Republic of China

A strong relationship exists between Thailand and China, grounded in historical and cultural ties. In the 21st century, economic relations between the two countries have further expanded, with increased cooperation in infrastructure, defense, and technology. While some senior Thai military appointments have been indirectly linked to China through Chinese-linked military education backgrounds or connections to the Thai royal family via Germany, these ties are evident in appointment backgrounds rather than in official foreign policy documents. Furthermore, Thailand’s defense cooperation with China regarding the acquisition of submarines is part of the broader strategic relationship between the two nations.

United States of America

A strong defense and security partnership has existed between Thailand and the United States since the Cold War. Thailand is regarded as one of the United States’ traditional allies in Southeast Asia. Ongoing cooperation includes military education, joint exercises, and strategic defense initiatives. However, over time, domestic political coups and civil-military dynamics have periodically affected this relationship.

Germany

Owing to the special ties between Thailand’s royal family and Germany, symbolic cultural and educational relations between the two countries stand out. In 2024, Admiral Jirapol Wongwit, appointed to command the Royal Thai Navy, graduated from the Marineschule Mürwik in Germany, serving as an example of defense-related engagement with Germany. Additionally, Thailand’s process of sourcing engines for its Chinese-built submarines from Germany demonstrates ongoing technical and diplomatic contacts with the country.

Sweden

Thailand is engaged in military-technological cooperation with Sweden as part of its air force modernization program. According to available sources, as of 2024, Thai Air Force Commander-in-Chief Air Chief Marshal Panpakdee Pattanakul has been closely involved in the procurement of Swedish-made Gripen fighter jets and has played an active role in this process.

Cambodia

Bilateral relations between Thailand and Cambodia are shaped by historical, geographical, and security-related factors. Thailand-Cambodia Border Conflicts (2025) is a military crisis that emerged when ongoing border disputes between the two countries escalated into armed conflict. The two nations share a land border, and occasional tensions in border areas have occasionally strained bilateral relations. Nevertheless, efforts to cooperate for the sake of regional stability continue.

As of 2024, the Thai government has intensified security measures in response to rising smuggling activities, irregular migration, and human trafficking along the Thailand-Cambodia border. Under its domestic security strategy, military presence has been strengthened in border regions, with units such as the First Army Region and the Fourth Army Region playing active roles in border security.

In military appointments, instability along the Thailand-Cambodia border has been taken into account; officers from powerful military factions such as Burapha Phayak and Wongthewan have been assigned to strategic positions related to border management.

The ASEAN framework also plays a significant role in relations between the two countries. As members of ASEAN, Thailand and Cambodia continue regional dialogue and cooperation and have committed to addressing cross-border issues through diplomatic channels.

Türkiye

Diplomatic relations between Thailand and Türkiye are maintained within a multifaceted and friendly framework. Both countries place importance on regional stability, economic cooperation, and multilateral diplomacy. Relations are being developed in areas such as trade, tourism, defense industry, and culture.

In 2023, a series of diplomatic and cultural events under the theme of “The Century of Türkiye” held in Thailand attracted attention. As part of these events, a delegation from the Royal Thai Navy obtained information about warships constructed in Türkiye under the MİLGEM (National Ship) project and held discussions on potential cooperation opportunities.

Contacts have also taken place in the defense industry sector; Thailand has shown close interest in Turkish defense technologies and shipbuilding capabilities. In this context, Turkish defense products are being evaluated as alternative supply options in Thailand.

In the field of cultural diplomacy, promotional activities conducted by Türkiye’s embassy in Thailand and various cultural and artistic events aim to strengthen mutual understanding between the two peoples. The Thai public recognizes Türkiye for its historical richness, cuisine, and natural beauty; Türkiye, in turn, emphasizes Thailand as an important friendly partner and ally in Southeast Asia.

Myanmar

Thailand’s relations with Myanmar, its western neighbor, are shaped primarily by issues of border security, smuggling, and migration. In 2024, the Thai government closely monitored the security situation along the Myanmar border, and military policies in this region became an important component of Thailand’s domestic security strategy.

International Organizations

Thailand is a member of various regional and international organizations. These memberships enable the country to pursue a balancing foreign policy, enhance economic cooperation, and establish joint mechanisms in the field of security.

Thailand is one of the founding members of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), one of the most important regional organizations among Southeast Asian countries. Within ASEAN, Thailand develops diplomatic, economic, and security-based cooperation with neighboring states and actively contributes to the regional integration process.

Other regional and international organizations of which Thailand is a member include:

• PEC (Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation)
• AsDB (Asian Development Bank)
• BIMSTEC (Bay of Bengal Initiative)
• CP (Cambodia Plan)
• ESCAP (United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific)
• FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization)
• G-77 (Group of 77)
• IAEA (International Atomic Energy Agency)
• IBRD (International Bank for Reconstruction and Development)
• ICAO (International Civil Aviation Organization)
• ICFTU (International Confederation of Free Trade Unions)
• ICRM (International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement)
• IDA (International Development Association)
• IFAD (International Fund for Agricultural Development)
• IFC (International Finance Corporation)
• IFRCS (International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies)
• IHO (International Hydrographic Organization)
• ILO (International Labour Organization)
• IMF (International Monetary Fund)
• IMO (International Maritime Organization)
• Inmarsat (International Maritime Satellite Organization)
• Intelsat (International Telecommunications Satellite Organization)
• Interpol (International Criminal Police Organization)
• IOC (International Olympic Committee)
• IOM (International Organization for Migration)
• ISO (International Organization for Standardization)
• ITU (International Telecommunication Union)
• NAM (Non-Aligned Movement)
• OIC (Organization of Islamic Cooperation – observer)
• OPCW (Organization for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons)
• PCA (Permanent Court of Arbitration)
• UN (United Nations)
• UNCTAD (UN Conference on Trade and Development)
• UNESCO (UN Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization)
• UNHCR (UN High Commissioner for Refugees)
• UNIDO (UN Industrial Development Organization)
• UNIKOM (UN Iraq-Kuwait Observation Mission)
• UNITAR (UN Institute for Training and Research)
• UNMIBH (UN Mission in Bosnia and Herzegovina)
• UNTAET (UN Transitional Administration in East Timor)
• UNU (UN University)
• UPU (Universal Postal Union)
• WCL (World Confederation of Labour)
• WCO (World Customs Organization)
• WFTU (World Federation of Trade Unions)
• WHO (World Health Organization)
• WIPO (World Intellectual Property Organization)
• WMO (World Meteorological Organization)
• WToO (World Tourism Organization)
• WTrO (World Trade Organization)

Armed Forces

The Royal Thai Armed Forces consist of the Royal Thai Army, Royal Thai Navy, Royal Thai Air Force, and the police force; they are structured to uphold the regime, ensure border security, and preserve the monarchy. The military structure also plays a decisive role in domestic politics, particularly in shaping power dynamics through high-level appointments.

In 2024, a total of 808 promotions were carried out, of which only 23 were awarded to female officers. This figure represents a decrease of five compared to 2023. A total of 588 generals were appointed, and 321 colonels and officers of equivalent rank were promoted to the rank of major general.

The Pheu Thai government appointed Phumtham Wechayachai, a civilian, as Minister of Defence. However, actual control within the ministry remains in the hands of generals closely aligned with the palace and military cliques.

Government efforts to reduce conscription, limit the defence budget, and regulate arms acquisitions have been met with limited acceptance by the military. In particular, conflicts along the Myanmar border and instability in southern Thailand have been used by the military to justify restricting civilian interference, citing strategic priorities.

Defence Industry

Thailand’s defence industry is structured in line with its national security strategy, focusing on modernization, technology transfer, and the enhancement of domestic production capacity. The country’s defence policy is based on strengthening the armed forces, maintaining combat readiness, balancing regional arms races, and building modern military infrastructure.

Before the COVID-19 pandemic, Thailand’s annual defence budget was approximately $6–7 billion USD. After the pandemic, this figure declined to between $5–6 billion. In 2023, the defence budget accounted for approximately 1% of the country’s gross domestic product (GDP). Nearly 49% of the budget was allocated to the Royal Thai Army, 20% to the Royal Thai Navy, and 18% to the Royal Thai Air Force. The remaining funds were distributed among the Ministry of Defence Permanent Secretariat, the Royal Thai Armed Forces Headquarters, and the Defence Technology Institute (DTI).

Key factors influencing the development of Thailand’s defence industry include internal security challenges in the southern provinces of Pattani, Yala, and Narathiwat, human trafficking, border conflicts, and political instability. In this context, the Thai government treats the development of a domestic defence industry as a strategic priority, implementing policies aimed at reducing external dependency, encouraging technology transfer, and strengthening national security.

Thailand’s defence industry is one of the 12 “S-curves” sectors identified under the Eastern Economic Corridor (EEC) initiative. Within this framework, the Defence Industry Zone (DFIZ) aims to enhance the country’s defence infrastructure through public-private partnerships involving both local and foreign companies. The integration of the defence industry infrastructure within the DFIZ seeks to increase Thailand’s self-sufficiency.

The Ministry of Defence has implemented the Ministry of Defence Restructuring Plan for 2023–2028. This plan sets objectives including reducing military personnel numbers, acquiring modern defence equipment, enhancing operational capability against multifaceted threats, adapting to evolving security environments, and closing units with redundant functions.

Additionally, the Ministry of Defence aims, within the framework of the International Military Security Cooperation Plan for 2023–2028, to strengthen relations with the armed forces of friendly nations. This plan encompasses joint military exercises, high-level commander visits, military training programs, bilateral and multilateral consultations, and memoranda of understanding. These efforts aim to reinforce military trust among allied countries.

Thailand remains largely dependent on imports for its defence equipment, particularly acquiring major defence systems from allied countries, especially the United States. However, guided by policies supporting domestic production, Thailand is open to opportunities for the sale and joint development of advanced systems such as unmanned air, land, and maritime vehicles.