The Liberation of Bursa (11 September 1922)

Bursa, historically, is not merely a city but also the first capital of the Ottoman Empire and one of the symbolic centers of Turkish-Islamic culture. For this reason, the Greek forces’ decision to target Bursa during their de facto occupation of Anatolia following World War I carried more than a mere military significance—it also constituted a psychological and symbolic attack. The occupation, which began on 8 July 1920, ended on 11 September 1922 with the Turkish army’s victory over the Greek forces, thereby liberating the city.

Strategic Context Before the Occupation

Following the Armistice of Mudros, the power vacuum in Anatolia enabled the Allied Powers to compete for influence. Greece sought to seize Western Anatolia under the framework of its “Megali Idea,” and with British support, it initiated this endeavor by occupying İzmir on 15 May 1919. Bursa held a crucial position in Greek military strategy due to its agricultural wealth and its role as a gateway to Istanbul via the Sea of Marmara. Operations targeting Bursa carried substantial economic and symbolic value.

Before the Ulucami During the Greek Occupation (Directorate of Culture and Social Affairs, Bursa BŞB Publications)

The Occupation of Bursa (8 July 1920)

The occupation of Bursa was a continuation of the Greek military advance in Western Anatolia. Greek units, having completed their preparations during the night of 7 July to 8 July, entered the city in the early morning hours. Bursa fell quickly due to the lack of sufficient military forces and equipment. The news of the occupation provoked strong reactions in Ankara; the podium in the Turkish Grand National Assembly, covered in black cloth, remained so until the city’s liberation.

Captured Turkish National Forces (Directorate of Culture and Social Affairs, Bursa BŞB Publications)

The Occupation Period

The Greek occupation lasted approximately two years, during which the city’s population endured severe hardships. In districts such as İnegöl, Gemlik, Orhangazi, and Karacabey, villages were burned, rural areas were devastated, and civilians were displaced. Animals and agricultural products were confiscated in the name of the Greek army.

The Greek administration banned Ottoman currency and replaced it with the Greek drachma, attempting to integrate the region economically into its own system. This policy caused widespread disruption in trade and daily life.

First Two Pages from the Register Listing the Names and Circumstances of Those Killed in the Central District of Bursa (Bursa BŞB Directorate of Culture and Social Affairs Publications)

Many Muslim residents fled the region under intense pressure, resulting in a significant population decline in the Bursa plain. International Red Cross reports documented the repression and mass displacement experienced by civilians in the area.

From the Section Listing the Names and Circumstances of Those Killed in the Central District of Bursa: 11 of 445 Individuals (Publications of the Bursa BŞB Directorate of Culture and Social Affairs)

The Greek army conducted not only physical but also symbolic attacks targeting culturally significant sites. This was interpreted as a deliberate policy aimed at breaking the psychological resistance of the population.

First Two Pages from the Section Listing the Names and Circumstances of Those Wounded in the Central District of Bursa (Bursa BŞB Directorate of Culture and Social Affairs Publications)

One Page from the Section Listing the Names and Circumstances of Those Wounded in the Central District of Bursa (Publications of the Bursa BŞB Directorate of Culture and Social Affairs)

Attack on the Tomb of Osman Gazi

The most widely reported and publicly resonant incident during the occupation of Bursa was the attack on the tomb of Osman Gazi, the founder of the Ottoman Empire. Sophoklis Venizelos, the son of the Greek Prime Minister Eleftherios Venizelos, visited the tomb, placed his foot on Osman Gazi’s sarcophagus, and had his photograph taken. The dissemination of this image in the European press triggered a profound sense of outrage in Turkish public opinion.

Sophoklis Venizelos at the Tomb of Osman Gazi (Directorate of Culture and Social Affairs, Bursa Metropolitan Municipality Publications)

This act was not merely an insult but was perceived as a direct assault on the historical memory and spiritual identity of the Turkish nation. Mehmet Âkif Ersoy referenced this event in his poem “Bülbül,” expressing the suffering of Bursa in the tone of a lament. This poem stands as one of the literary examples reflecting the national consciousness shaped by the occupation of Bursa.

International Reactions and Red Cross Reports

International observers monitored developments in the region during the occupation. Maurice Gehri, representative of the International Red Cross, documented in his reports the violence inflicted upon the Muslim population, the burning of villages, and the waves of displacement. Gehri’s observations corroborated the evidence presented by the Turkish side to international public opinion and revealed the humanitarian dimensions of the occupation.

Young Girl Tortured by Greek Soldiers, from the Red Cross Archives (Bursa BŞB Directorate of Culture and Social Affairs Publications)

The Great Offensive and the Liberation of the City (6–11 September 1922)

Following the successful conclusion of the Great Offensive, which began on 26 August 1922, the Turkish army rapidly advanced westward. On 6 September, Turkish units liberated Yenişehir and İnegöl. Orhangazi and its surroundings regained their freedom on 9–10 September. On 11 September 1922, the Turkish army entered the center of Bursa, definitively ending the Greek occupation. After the liberation, the black cloth covering the podium in the Turkish Grand National Assembly was removed, and celebrations were held throughout the city.

Şükrü Naili Paşa Entering Bursa with His Unit on the Day of Liberation (Bursa BŞB Directorate of Culture and Social Affairs Publications)

Post-Liberation Reconstruction and Memory

After liberation, a process of both physical and spiritual reconstruction began in Bursa. Mosques, tombs, and caravanserais damaged during the occupation were restored in the early years of the Republic. Displaced populations returned, and agriculture and trade gradually revived.

Mustafa Kemal Paşa’s Arrival in Bursa on 16 October 1922 (Directorate of Culture and Social Affairs, Bursa Metropolitan Municipality Publications)

The massacres, economic pressures, and especially the attack on the Tomb of Osman Gazi during the occupation played a critical role in strengthening Turkish resistance and accelerating popular participation in the national struggle. Liberation enabled the symbolic and physical reconstruction of the city; in the Republican era, Bursa once again became one of Anatolia’s leading cultural and economic centers.