United Nations (UN)

The United Nations (UN) is a universal international organization established in 1945 after World War II to maintain international peace and security, promote cooperation among states, and generate collective solutions in economic, social, and humanitarian fields. Its creation was the result of a global effort to establish a more effective, institutionalized, and broadly empowered international order following the failures of the League of Nations in preventing war. The UN is grounded in the UN Charter, which upholds state sovereignty while envisioning the operation of collective security mechanisms in situations threatening international peace, thereby becoming one of the central institutions of the modern international system.

The organization assumes responsibility across a vast range of areas, from peace and security to development, human rights to environmental sustainability. Composed of principal organs such as the Security Council, the General Assembly, the Economic and Social Council, the International Court of Justice, and the Secretariat, the UN possesses a multi-layered and comprehensive decision-making structure that represents its member states. Peacekeeping operations, mediation initiatives, humanitarian aid activities, and the strengthening of the international legal order are among the core areas of its work.

Since its founding, the UN has continuously transformed to respond to the changing needs of world politics, from the Cold War era and the process of decolonization to the accelerated globalization of the 1990s and today’s multipolar international environment. Despite all criticisms and structural challenges, it continues to serve as the most inclusive platform of the international community and remains centrally involved in managing crises, preventing conflicts, supporting development goals, and strengthening human security.

History

The emergence of the UN is rooted in efforts since the beginning of the 20th century to safeguard international peace through institutional means. The League of Nations (LoN), established in 1919, was the first such organization. However, its limited membership, the absence of major powers such as the United States and the Soviet Union, the requirement of unanimity for decisions, and conflicts of interest among great powers prevented it from forming an effective structure.

The Second World War, which occurred between 1939 and 1945, resulted in the loss of millions of lives and widespread destruction, while also revealing the League of Nations’ profound inadequacy in preventing conflict. These conditions brought to the forefront the urgent need for a more inclusive and functional organization capable of preserving international peace and security. Even while the war was ongoing, the Allied Powers asserted that lasting peace could only be achieved through a new international institution, and the foundations of the United Nations were laid during various international conferences held during the war years.

The Founding Process

After the dissolution of the League of Nations, the understanding emerged that the participation of major powers was essential for maintaining international peace. Consequently, the structure of the UN was designed to guarantee the inclusion of the victorious powers. The formation of the UN was shaped through diplomatic negotiations during the war.

• Atlantic Charter of 14 August 1941: The Atlantic Charter, signed in 1941, was the first document outlining the principles for the postwar international order. It included commitments to international cooperation, peace, freedom, the right of peoples to self-determination, and economic collaboration.
• Declaration by United Nations of 1 January 1942: This document marked the first official use of the term “United Nations.” In it, 26 countries declared their common will to establish a lasting peace order after the war.
• 1943 Moscow Conference: It reinforced the decision to establish a new international organization after the war.
• Dumbarton Oaks Conference of 1944: It defined the structure of the new organization; the principal organs and operational principles were decided at this meeting. The organs of the organization, membership criteria, and fundamental principles of the security system were established here.

The San Francisco Agreement and the UN Charter

The final stage in establishing the new organization was completed at the conference held in San Francisco from 25 April to 26 June 1945. Fifty countries participated. The principles determined at Dumbarton Oaks were discussed, and the organization’s name, functions, and structure were finalized.

The UN Charter, prepared at the end of the conference, was signed on 26 June 1945. In its preamble, the signatories expressed their determination to prevent the horrors of war, respect human rights and fundamental freedoms, and establish an international order based on justice and liberty.

The fundamental purposes of the UN are summarized under four headings in Article 1 of the Charter:

• To maintain international peace and security,
• To develop friendly relations among nations,
• To promote international cooperation in economic, social, and cultural fields,
• To protect and promote human rights and fundamental freedoms

For the Charter to enter into force, ratification by five permanent members (the United States, the Soviet Union, the United Kingdom, France, and China) and a total of 29 other states was required. With the completion of all necessary ratifications, it entered into force on 24 October 1945. This date is recognized as the organization’s founding day.

Türkiye’s Founding Membership

Türkiye was among the founding members of the United Nations. In the final stages of the war, Türkiye strengthened its diplomatic relations with the Allied Powers and declared war on Germany and Japan on 1 March 1945, thereby gaining the right to participate in the San Francisco Conference.

The Turkish delegation took its place among the founding nations by signing the UN Charter on 26 June 1945. Türkiye’s accession to the United Nations reflected its policy of assuming an active role in the international community.

The Cold War Era

Although the UN was established after World War II to preserve international peace and security, its capacity in this area was largely constrained by the bipolar power balance of the Cold War. The deep mistrust between the Western Bloc led by the United States and the Eastern Bloc led by the Soviet Union prevented the most important reform inherited from the League of Nations—the direction of the Security Council by the great powers—from being realized. During this period, marked by ideological division, power vacuums, psychological and economic warfare methods, proxy conflicts, and an extensive arms race, the UN remained largely under the influence of the United States and its allies. Since the superpowers were unwilling to transfer military authority to each other, the collective security mechanisms envisioned by the system effectively ceased to function.

Early Years of the Cold War: The Veto Crisis, the Korean War, and the Suez Crisis

In the early years of the Cold War, the Security Council’s military-based peace system could not be implemented, and its activities were severely restricted. Two key examples of this period were the Korean War and the 1956 Suez Crisis. The Korean War constituted the first major test in which the UN moved beyond being merely a diplomatic forum and took the unprecedented decision to use force, contrary to what was envisaged in the UN Charter. During the Suez Crisis, when the Security Council became paralyzed due to vetoes by Britain and France, the General Assembly activated the “Uniting for Peace” mechanism to establish the first UN Emergency Force (UNEF). This process laid the groundwork for the emergence of UN peacekeeping operations. These operations were defined as military units deployed with the consent of the parties, whose use of force was limited exclusively to legitimate defense and operated on the principle of impartiality.

The Congo operation between 1960 and 1964 revealed the limits of this model. Although the operation succeeded in preserving national unity, criticism mounted over the UN’s loss of impartiality. In the early period, UN members—particularly the superpowers—attempted to use the organization to advance their national interests; in this context, the United States, due to its dominant position in the international community, became the most influential actor.

1960–1970s: Decolonization, the Rise of the Third World, and the Expanding UN Agenda

In the 1960s, the rapid process of decolonization in Asia and Africa fundamentally transformed the UN’s membership structure. With the majority of the organization now composed of Third World states, the United States lost its majority in the General Assembly; the organization gradually transformed into a body dominated by the Third World. This shift also altered the previous power balance between the Security Council and the General Assembly.

Newly independent states, unable to integrate into the permanent membership structure of the Security Council, sought to place issues such as economic development, social justice, opposition to racism, and the elimination of colonialism at the center of the organization’s agenda through the General Assembly. This development led to the expansion of the Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC); its membership increased from 18 to 27 in 1965 and to 54 in 1973. The Security Council also expanded from 11 to 15 members in 1965.

During this period, mutual distrust between the superpowers persisted, rendering the UN ineffective in major conflicts such as the Vietnam War. However, the UN Peacekeeping Force in Cyprus (UNFICYP), established in 1964, played a role in limiting intercommunal tensions, creating buffer zones, and supporting humanitarian aid.

1980s: Deep Crisis, Ineffectiveness, and the Search for Renewed Cooperation

In the 1980s, the UN entered a serious political and financial crisis. It remained ineffective in events such as the hostage crisis in Iran, the China-Vietnam conflict, and the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan. During the Iran-Iraq War, the Security Council remained passive. The UN’s inadequacy in confronting new forms of conflict such as civil wars, armed rebellions, and guerrilla warfare was also rooted in the rigid interpretation of Article 2(7) of the UN Charter, which prohibits intervention in domestic affairs.

Throughout the 1980s, the UN’s financial crisis deepened; the United States, in response to the growing influence of the Third World, began reducing its budget contributions. Nevertheless, by the end of the decade, cooperation among the permanent members of the Security Council re-emerged. Of the 119 resolutions adopted between 1980 and 1985, 75 were passed with the unanimous support of the permanent members; between 1986 and 1990, 93 out of 103 resolutions received such support. This alignment was concretized in 1987 with a Security Council resolution aimed at ending the Iran-Iraq War.

Additionally, changes in Soviet foreign policy during the Gorbachev era—including the decision to withdraw from Afghanistan and the easing of relations with the United States—enhanced the effectiveness of the UN. Agreements signed in 1988 on Namibia and Angola were supported by the deployment of UN peace forces, and for the first time, an effective mediation framework emerged under the guarantees of the superpowers within the Security Council.

The New Security Paradigm After 1990

With the end of the Cold War, the United Nations assumed a more active role in international peace and security matters. Resolutions adopted by the Security Council following Iraq’s invasion of Kuwait in the 1990s demonstrated the renewed functionality of the collective security mechanism; agreements signed in Angola and Namibia showed that the UN could again play an effective role in peace processes. During this period, the organization established peacekeeping and observation missions to ensure electoral security and monitor transition processes, expanding the scope of its peacekeeping activities. Indeed, while only 13 peacekeeping missions had been established between 1948 and the end of the 1980s, five new operations were launched between 1989 and 1994 alone.

However, not all developments of this period were positive. The severe humanitarian crises in Rwanda, Bosnia-Herzegovina, and Somalia revealed the limited capacity and responsiveness of the UN. These experiences made it increasingly evident that the new security paradigm needed to focus not only on military threats but also on a broad spectrum of risks, including humanitarian crises, poverty, state collapse, environmental threats, and mass migration.

Another significant development during this period was the Second Gulf War (2003), which exposed the fragility of the international security order. The United States launched a military operation based on the claim that Iraq possessed weapons of mass destruction; however, this intervention was carried out without explicit authorization from the Security Council. The United States’ unilateral operation, despite UN resolutions, revealed the limits of the collective security mechanism, which had been thought to regain strength in the 1990s, and triggered intense debates on the legitimacy of international law.

Multilateral Diplomacy in the 21st Century

In the 21st century, the United Nations remains at the center of multilateral diplomacy. Transnational challenges such as globalization, climate change, terrorism, pandemics, and mass migration have further expanded its agenda. The UN has become a central hub for establishing the normative framework of international cooperation through initiatives such as the Paris Climate Agreement (2015) and the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development. Today, the UN continues to function as a global platform that coordinates with regional organizations, sets norms, mediates, and serves as the primary reference point in crisis management.

Institutional Structure and Principal Organs

According to the UN Charter, the organization consists of six principal organs: the General Assembly, the Security Council, the Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC), the Trusteeship Council, the International Court of Justice (ICJ), and the Secretariat. These organs operate in accordance with the goals of peace, security, development, and justice outlined in the Charter’s founding purpose.

General Assembly

The General Assembly is the principal organ representing all member states of the United Nations. Each member state has one vote. The General Assembly adopts decisions by a two-thirds majority on important matters and by a simple majority on other issues. Matters such as peace and security, new memberships, and the budget are among the key issues it addresses. Heads of state deliver speeches during its annual sessions held in New York in September. The General Assembly serves as the platform for expressing the collective views of the international community.

Security Council

The Security Council is responsible for maintaining international peace and security. It consists of 15 members, five of whom are permanent: the United States of America, the Russian Federation, the People’s Republic of China, France, and the United Kingdom. The other ten are elected by the General Assembly for two-year terms. Nine affirmative votes are required for a decision to be valid, and no permanent member may exercise its veto right. The Security Council may impose sanctions or authorize military intervention to restore peace in international crises. The veto right is a factor that complicates the adoption of decisions.

Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC)

ECOSOC is the organ responsible for coordinating the UN’s work on economic, social, and environmental issues. It comprises 54 members elected by the General Assembly for three-year terms. ECOSOC monitors the implementation of sustainable development goals and coordinates the activities of specialized agencies affiliated with the UN (such as WHO, UNESCO, ILO, and FAO). The Council formulates decisions and recommendations to support social justice, development, and human rights.

Trusteeship Council

The Trusteeship Council was established in 1945 to oversee the preparation of territories under colonial administration for independence. After all trust territories achieved independence, the Council suspended its operations on 1 November 1994. It retains the authority to convene if necessary.

International Court of Justice (ICJ)

The International Court of Justice is the judicial organ of the United Nations. Its seat is in The Hague, Netherlands. The Court is tasked with resolving legal disputes between states and providing advisory opinions on legal questions referred to it by UN organs. The ICJ plays a significant role in the development and application of international law.

Secretariat

The Secretariat consists of the Secretary-General and UN staff. The Secretary-General is elected by the General Assembly for a five-year term upon the recommendation of the Security Council. The Secretariat conducts the day-to-day operations of the organization, prepares reports, and ensures the implementation of decisions made by other organs. The Secretary-General is the highest administrative authority of the United Nations and carries out duties in the areas of preserving peace, managing crises, and promoting international cooperation.

Specialized Agencies and Related Organizations

The United Nations carries out its work not only through its principal organs but also through specialized agencies and related organizations. These agencies operate in economic, social, cultural, health, education, communication, and financial fields. Each has its own charter and budget and possesses international legal personality; however, cooperation and coordination among them are facilitated through the UN Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC).

Specialized agencies were established under Articles 57 and 63 of the UN Charter. According to these articles, organizations that assume international responsibilities and are specialized in their fields may become part of the UN system through agreements with the UN. These agencies operate in alignment with the purposes set out in the UN Charter and report their activities to ECOSOC and the General Assembly.

The principal specialized agencies within the UN system are as follows:

United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO)

UNESCO, which began operations in Paris in 1946, aims to promote international cooperation in education, science, and culture. The organization works to eliminate illiteracy, protect cultural heritage, and encourage scientific research. UNESCO’s initiatives include the World Heritage List and conventions on the protection of cultural diversity.

World Health Organization (WHO)

Established in 1948, WHO works to protect human health and prevent diseases. The organization engages in formulating global health policies, expanding vaccination programs, and combating pandemics. WHO’s headquarters are in Geneva. It has played a leading role in responding to global health crises, including the COVID-19 pandemic.

Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO)

Established in 1945, FAO works to combat hunger, increase agricultural production, and support rural development. The organization’s headquarters are in Rome. FAO provides technical assistance to countries for developing food security and nutrition policies.

International Labour Organization (ILO)

Established in 1919 within the framework of the League of Nations, the ILO is one of the oldest specialized agencies integrated into the UN system. The organization establishes international standards for improving working conditions, ensuring occupational safety, and promoting social justice. It is the only UN organization with a tripartite structure (representatives of governments, employers, and workers).

International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the World Bank Group

The IMF and the World Bank, established at the Bretton Woods Conference in 1944, operate to ensure global economic stability and finance development projects. The IMF safeguards the stability of the international monetary system, while the World Bank provides economic and infrastructure assistance to developing countries. Both institutions are linked to the United Nations through special agreements.

United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF)

Established in 1946, UNICEF works to meet children’s needs in health, education, and nutrition and to protect children’s rights. UNICEF is a fund directly under the UN General Assembly and carries out both emergency relief and development programs.

United Nations Development Programme (UNDP)

Established in 1965, UNDP aims to coordinate development assistance. The organization implements projects in poverty reduction, sustainable development, good governance, and environmental protection. It has played a leading role in implementing the Sustainable Development Goals (2015–2030).

Other Specialized Agencies and Related Bodies

Other organizations within the UN system include the International Maritime Organization (IMO), the World Meteorological Organization (WMO), the World Trade Organization (WTO), the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO), the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO), and the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA). These organizations contribute to establishing international standards in economic, environmental, and technological fields.

The UN, International Law, and Human Rights

The UN Charter is one of the foundational pillars of the modern international legal order. Article 2 of the Charter explicitly affirms the principle of sovereign equality among states. According to this principle, every state has the same legal status as others, and no state may interfere in the domestic affairs of another. The Charter prohibits the use or threat of force; however, the Security Council may authorize the use of force when international peace is threatened.

In this framework, the UN has created a structure that upholds the principle of sovereignty while enabling the application of a collective security system. This order, which recognizes the right of states to independence, also prescribes collective action to preserve international peace.

Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948)

The founding of the United Nations coincided with developments aimed at protecting human rights at the international level. The 1899 and 1907 Hague Peace Conferences laid the first steps toward protecting civilians and limiting the laws of war.

After World War I, issues such as minority rights, the status of women, and labor conditions entered the agenda of the League of Nations. International declaration drafts prepared in the 1920s and 1930s laid the groundwork for the recognition of individuals under international law.

During World War II, these ideas converged with President Franklin D. Roosevelt’s 1941 articulation of the “Four Freedoms”: freedom of speech, freedom of worship, freedom from want, and freedom from fear.

After the adoption of the UN Charter, the Universal Declaration of Human Rights was proclaimed on 10 December 1948. It was the first comprehensive text defining the international community’s shared understanding of human rights. It is based on the principle that all human beings are born free and equal, regardless of race, gender, religion, or origin. It defines fundamental rights such as the right to life, fair trial, freedom of thought, and the right to education at a universal level.

Although not legally binding, the Declaration served as the foundation for subsequent legally binding treaties, including the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights and the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights.

International Criminal Mechanisms

The United Nations has played a pioneering role in establishing international criminal courts to prosecute war crimes and crimes against humanity.

• The International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (ICTY), established in 1993, was tasked with adjudicating war crimes committed in Bosnia-Herzegovina.
• The International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda (ICTR), created after the 1994 genocide, was established for similar purposes.

These two tribunals were the first examples demonstrating that individuals could be held accountable under international law.

The International Criminal Court (ICC), which entered into force in 2002, is a permanent judicial body established in The Hague. Based on the Rome Statute, the Court handles cases involving genocide, crimes against humanity, war crimes, and the crime of aggression.

These courts have contributed to combating impunity under international law and strengthened the UN’s role in ensuring justice. 

The UN and Sustainable Development

Development Goals

In 2000, at the Millennium Summit in New York, the United Nations set the global development agenda. The Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) were grouped under eight main headings, aiming to reduce extreme poverty, ensure educational equity, improve maternal and child health, combat HIV/AIDS, promote environmental sustainability, and strengthen global partnerships. The program, implemented until 2015, significantly reduced poverty but did not fully eliminate regional inequalities.

Sustainable Development Goals (2015–2030)

Adopted in 2015, the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) are the continuation of the Millennium Goals. This framework, comprising 17 main goals and 169 targets, is based on the principles of economic growth, social inclusion, and environmental protection. Eliminating poverty, combating climate change, ensuring quality education, achieving gender equality, and promoting sustainable energy are among these goals. The goals are being implemented by all countries as a shared development plan until 2030.

Climate Change and COP Summits

The United Nations initiated environmental and climate policy with the 1992 Rio Summit and strengthened it with the 1997 Kyoto Protocol and the 2015 Paris Agreement. Annual COP (Conference of the Parties) meetings monitor progress toward reducing greenhouse gas emissions and limiting global warming to 1.5°C. These summits require countries to update their nationally determined contributions toward carbon neutrality.

Peacekeeping Operations

The United Nations carries out its mandate to maintain international peace and security under Chapters VI and VII of the Charter. Peacekeeping operations are organized to prevent conflicts, sustain ceasefires, protect civilians, and support political processes. More than 70 operations have been conducted since 1948.

The Evolution of the Peacekeeping Concept

Although peacekeeping is not explicitly mentioned in the UN Charter, it emerged with the first observation mission established in Palestine in 1948. This was followed in 1949 by the UN Military Observer Mission in India and Pakistan. Operations during this period were characterized as “traditional peacekeeping,” requiring the consent of the parties and limiting the use of force.

After the Cold War, the concept of peacekeeping expanded, and “multidimensional operations” incorporating civilian experts and police forces began. During this period, operations assumed responsibilities such as organizing elections, facilitating refugee returns, and rebuilding institutions.

In the 2000s, the concepts of peace-making, peace-building, and preventive diplomacy were adopted. Operations continue to be based on the principles of impartiality, consent of the parties, and limited use of force.

Major Operations

Since its founding, the United Nations has conducted more than 70 peacekeeping operations. Over 2 million personnel have served in these operations, and more than 4,000 peacekeepers have lost their lives. The authority for each operation is determined by UN Security Council resolutions.

Some major operations include: 

• UNTSO (1948, Middle East): The UN’s first peacekeeping mission, tasked with monitoring the ceasefire in the Middle East.
• UNRWA (1949, Palestine): A UN agency supporting humanitarian and development assistance to Palestinian refugees.
• UNFICYP (1964, Cyprus): Established to prevent conflict between communities on the island and maintain peace in the buffer zone.
• UNIFIL (1978, Lebanon): Responsible for maintaining the ceasefire and protecting civilians along the border between Israel and Lebanon.
• UNPROFOR (1992, Former Yugoslavia): Deployed to prevent conflict in Bosnia-Herzegovina and Croatia.
• UNAMIR (1993, Rwanda): Aimed to protect civilians during the civil war but proved inadequate in preventing the genocide.
• MONUC/MONUSCO (2000, Democratic Republic of the Congo): Works to neutralize armed groups, protect civilians, and ensure stability.
• MINUSCA (2014, Central African Republic): Conducts activities to ensure political stability and protect human rights.
• UNMISS (2011, South Sudan): After the country’s independence, it carries out the mission of protecting civilians and delivering humanitarian aid amid internal conflict.
• UNMIK (1999, Kosovo): Established to restore the rule of law, protect human rights, and reestablish public order.
• MINUSMA (2013, Mali): Deployed to ensure civilian safety in areas under terrorist threat and to support the strengthening of state authority.

Peacekeeping personnel include not only soldiers but also police, legal experts, engineers, health workers, and civilian specialists who engage with local communities. The funding of operations is provided through contributions from UN member states.

Criticisms

Peacekeeping operations have been criticized for their high costs and effectiveness issues. Failures in Rwanda and Bosnia-Herzegovina highlighted the organization’s limited capacity to intervene.

The 2000 Brahimi Report recommended making operations more effective and better resourced. Subsequently, the Peacebuilding Commission emphasized that long-term peace must be supported by economic and social foundations.

Recent reform efforts have aimed to adapt to new risks such as terrorism, climate change, and cyber threats. The 2023 Peacekeeping Ministerial Meeting in Ghana established priorities regarding technology use and the participation of women in peace processes.

Despite changing conditions, UN peacekeeping operations remain a fundamental element of the organization’s peace and security activities.

UN Reform Demands

The structure of the United Nations has remained largely unchanged since its founding, despite shifting global power dynamics. Reform debates have focused particularly on the representative justice of the Security Council, its veto power, and its effectiveness. The organization’s inability to respond effectively to global crises, the non-implementation of decisions due to conflicting interests, and financial resource problems have strengthened these debates.

The Security Council, with its five permanent members established in 1945 (the United States, the United Kingdom, France, Russia, and China), is viewed by many as insufficiently representative of today’s multipolar world. The veto power of permanent members obstructs the adoption of decisions on international peace. This is clearly evident in crises such as Gaza, Syria, and Ukraine.

African, Asia-Pacific, and Latin American countries have long demanded fairer representation. States such as Japan, Germany, India, Brazil, and Türkiye are among those frequently proposed for expansion. However, because Charter amendments require the approval of existing permanent members, the reform process has stalled.

The 2024 “Pact for the Future” document called for a more inclusive and accountable Security Council. Discussions have also addressed financial sustainability, timely payment of member contributions, and enhancing the Council’s effectiveness.

Despite all criticisms, the United Nations is still regarded as the broadest representative of global legitimacy; however, its ability to sustain this position depends on adapting its Council structure to contemporary conditions.