Tarnovo, located in northern Bulgaria, was a significant settlement during the Ottoman Empire, remaining under Ottoman rule for nearly 500 years. During this period, the city witnessed the construction of mosques, baths, and bridges reflecting Ottoman architectural influences, transforming it into a cultural and commercial hub. Situated along the Yantra River, one of Tarnovo's most iconic landmarks, Tsarevets Fortress, showcases the city’s rich history with traces from both the Ottoman period and earlier Bulgarian kingdoms.
Founding and the Bulgarian Tsardom Period
The rise of Veliko Tarnovo during the medieval period was closely tied to the region’s geopolitical importance. The city was strategically positioned between the Balkan Mountains and the Danubian Plain, perched on the steep and winding banks of the Yantra River. This natural defensive advantage made Tarnovo highly resistant to Byzantine and other external threats. During this time, Tarnovo was encircled by the hills of Tsarevets, Trapezitsa, and Momina Krepost, with Tsarevets Hill becoming the most prominent stronghold.
In 1185, Tarnovo was declared the capital of the Second Bulgarian Empire following a successful uprising against the Byzantine Empire. This decision accelerated the city’s rise as both a political and religious center. The founders of the Second Bulgarian Empire, the brothers Asen and Teodor (later known as Petar), selected Tarnovo as the symbol of resistance against Byzantine control. Thanks to its strong fortifications and natural defenses, the city quickly grew into the heart of the Bulgarian Empire.
Tsarevets and Trapezitsa: The Stronghold of Power
Throughout the Middle Ages, the core of Tarnovo was centered on the hills of Tsarevets and Trapezitsa. Tsarevets Hill housed the royal palaces of the Bulgarian tsars, along with religious structures and the mansions of the nobility. This area functioned as a government hub, featuring a combination of palaces, churches, and residential buildings. The hill was surrounded by steep slopes, providing natural protection, and further reinforced with tall man-made walls. The main gate of the fortress was equipped with a series of passages and defensive towers to safeguard the city from potential invaders.
Tsarevets Fortress
The palace located on Tsarevets Hill served as the administrative center for Bulgarian tsars and contained a special church for religious ceremonies. This palace church, one of the most important religious structures in the city, holds a special place in the Orthodox world. The city's second prominent hill, Trapezitsa, was a residential area for nobles and hosted numerous churches and monasteries. The walls of these churches are adorned with frescoes reflecting the artistic style of the period. While Tsarevets and Trapezitsa represent the political and cultural power of Tarnovo, Momin Hisar Hill played a crucial role in the city's defense strategy.
Significance in Bulgarian Culture
The Tarnovo School and Contributions to Literature
As the capital of the Second Bulgarian Empire, Tarnovo heralded the golden age of Bulgarian culture. During this period, a cultural and artistic movement known as the Tarnovo School emerged, making the city the center of Bulgarian art and literature. Under the reign of Tsar Ivan Alexander, this cultural development reached its zenith, leaving a profound impact on literature, art, and religious life.
One of the prominent figures of the Tarnovo School was Patriarch Evtimiy of the Bulgarian Orthodox Church. Evtimiy made significant contributions to the Bulgarian language and literature, establishing standardized writing rules. His influence can be seen in the religious and literary works written in Bulgarian, which later influenced Serbian and Russian literature. Numerous monasteries and churches in Tarnovo, particularly in the Trapezitsa area, became centers for this literary development, serving as hubs for copying Bulgarian manuscripts and providing religious education. Tarnovo was not just a capital but also a cultural center for the entire Slavic world.
Development of Religious Architecture and Art
Medieval Tarnovo is notable for its structures that embody the characteristic features of the era’s architecture and art. The churches and monasteries on Tsarevets and Trapezitsa Hills stand out as architecturally impressive structures adorned with rich fresco decorations. These frescoes reflect a blend of Byzantine influence and unique Bulgarian stylistic elements. Especially the frescoes painted on church walls present a localized adaptation of Christian iconography within Bulgarian culture. Holy figures and religious scenes are vividly depicted with vibrant colors. The palace and churches on Tsarevets Hill dominate the city skyline as monumental representations of Bulgarian architectural grandeur.
Religious architecture in Tarnovo reflects the spiritual identity of the Bulgarian Empire. Notable structures such as the Church of Saint Demetrius and the Church of the Forty Martyrs are both symbols of Bulgarian independence struggles and significant religious monuments. The Church of the Forty Martyrs, built in 1230 by Bulgarian ruler Ivan Asen II to commemorate the victory over the Byzantine Empire at the Battle of Klokotnitsa, exemplifies this cultural pride. Such religious structures were constructed as expressions of Bulgaria's desire to maintain its independent identity against Byzantium.
Regional Importance and Foreign Relations of Tarnovo
Tarnovo's Role in Trade and Diplomacy
During the medieval period, Tarnovo was not only a cultural hub but also an essential trade center. Situated in the heart of the Balkans at the intersection of trade routes, the city played a significant role in the economic development of the Bulgarian Empire. Tarnovo managed trade connections with Western Europe, Byzantium, and the East. Italian, Venetian, and Genoese merchants contributed to the city's trade growth, integrating Tarnovo into the international trade network. These commercial ties facilitated the blending of different cultures, enriching Tarnovo and fostering cultural exchanges.
Relations and Conflicts with the Byzantine Empire
Tarnovo experienced a prolonged period of rivalry and conflict with the Byzantine Empire. The Second Bulgarian Empire's declaration of independence from Byzantium led to military and political tensions between the two states. During the 13th century, the Byzantine Empire launched several attacks on Tarnovo in an attempt to reestablish control over Bulgaria. However, the Bulgarian Empire resisted with strong military defenses, fostering a sense of resilience against Byzantium among the Bulgarian people and establishing Tarnovo as a symbol of national identity.
At the same time, Tarnovo became a diplomatic center where Bulgarian rulers strengthened relations with Byzantine emperors through marriages and diplomatic negotiations. These diplomatic engagements contributed to maintaining political stability and bolstering Tarnovo’s position in the region.
Tarnovo During the Ottoman Period
Tarnovo's Integration into Ottoman Administration and the Beginning of a New Era
Tarnovo came under Ottoman rule during the empire’s expansion into the Balkans, officially being incorporated in 1388. Under the command of Vizier Çandarlı Ali Pasha, the Ottoman army captured key strategic points in the region, consolidating Ottoman dominance in the Balkans. Tarnovo surrendered peacefully to Ottoman control, and the city was integrated into the Ottoman administrative system.
However, Tarnovo fully came under Ottoman control during the reign of Bayezid I, following a siege in 1393. During this conquest, some structures on Tsarevets Hill and the city's defense facilities were reorganized. The Ottoman army stationed military units in the area to fortify Tarnovo's defenses. Recognizing its strategic importance, the Ottomans used Tarnovo as an administrative and military hub.
Changes in Religious and Social Structures Under Ottoman Rule
After being incorporated into the Ottoman Empire, Tarnovo's religious structures were reshaped under Ottoman administration. Some churches in Tarnovo were converted into mosques, and the church on Tsarevets Hill underwent architectural modifications reflecting Ottoman designs. During this period, Islamic structures were constructed in the city. Firuz Bey is noted for having built a single-domed mosque, two smaller mosques, an imaret (public kitchen), a madrasa (Islamic school), a bathhouse, a caravanserai, and a bridge over the Yantra River in 1435. These buildings, supported by the Ottoman waqf system, were integral to social life in Ottoman cities. Firuz Bey secured the funding for these establishments through waqf revenues, ensuring their sustainability.
An Engraving Depicting Tarnovo in the 19th Century
Traces of Islamic Life After Tarnovo Came Under Ottoman Rule
Following Tarnovo's transition to Ottoman rule, the increase in the Muslim population made the traces of Islamic life more prominent. This population growth was supported not only by the Muslims who arrived with the Ottoman conquests but also by some of the local population adopting Islam. Under Ottoman rule, Tarnovo was equipped with mosques, small prayer halls (mescit), and madrasas, enabling social and religious life to revolve around these structures. The people of Tarnovo were allowed to freely practice their faith under the millet system implemented by the Ottoman administration. Christians were able to conduct their worship within their own community structures.
Trade and Economic Development During the Ottoman Period
Tarnovo's Importance as a Trade Hub
The Ottoman Empire developed Tarnovo not only as a military base but also as a center for trade and commerce. Positioned as a bridge between the Balkans and Central Europe, Tarnovo became part of the extensive Ottoman trade network. During this period, caravanserais in the city increased its commercial significance, particularly as a center for trade with other cities in the Balkans. Tarnovo's trade activities were further supported by merchants from Dubrovnik and Venice, integrating the city more deeply into the international trade network. With the encouragement of the Ottoman Empire, Tarnovo, situated on one of the Balkans' key trade routes, significantly contributed to the Ottoman economy.
These trade activities in Tarnovo also played a role in fostering the region’s ethnic and cultural diversity. During the Ottoman period, Muslim, Christian, and Jewish merchants worked together, and this multicultural structure invigorated the city's commercial life. The Ottoman administration implemented legal regulations to support trade in Tarnovo, ensuring a secure environment for merchants to conduct their business.
Agriculture and Craft Development
Under Ottoman rule, agriculture and crafts gained great importance in Tarnovo. During this period, sericulture (silk production) became widespread, and silk production flourished in Tarnovo and its surrounding villages. This development turned Tarnovo into a textile hub, making it one of the key centers of silk production in the Ottoman Empire. Wine production was another cornerstone of the city’s economy, holding significant commercial value during the Ottoman era.
Crafts were also supported through the Ottoman waqf (endowment) system. Various artisans, including cooks, bakers, blacksmiths, and others, found employment opportunities through waqfs, which also supported the development of these crafts. Artisans contributed to meeting the needs of Ottoman society by working in mosques, prayer halls, and public kitchens, thereby playing a significant role in the city’s economic development.
Tarnovo's Demographic Structure and Social Life Under Ottoman Rule
Changes in the Population Structure
Significant demographic changes occurred in Tarnovo under Ottoman rule. According to Ottoman records from 1479, there were 132 Muslim households and 372 Christian households in the city. By 1516, the number of Muslim households had risen to 257, while Christian households increased to 397. This growth can be seen as a result of the Ottoman policy of balanced population increase in the city.
Under Ottoman rule, Tarnovo became a multicultural city where Muslims, Christians, and Catholics coexisted. Christian communities freely practiced their religion, while Catholic merchants played a key role in the economic life of the city. Through the millet system, the Ottoman administration ensured that religious groups in Tarnovo could govern their own internal affairs, contributing to social harmony in the city.
The Waqf System and Social Services
The waqf system held an important place in shaping the social structure of cities in the Ottoman Empire, and it was widely implemented in Tarnovo. Waqfs established in Tarnovo provided various services to meet the social needs of the people. Madrasas, public kitchens, baths, and caravanserais were built through the waqf system and served the community. Among these, structures such as the mosque, public kitchen, and caravanserai built by Firuz Bey were particularly noteworthy.
The waqf system provided services not only to the Muslim population but also to Christians and other groups in the city. For instance, public kitchens operated to provide food to those in need, while mosques, prayer halls, and madrasas offered educational and religious services, contributing to the social life of the people. Waqfs played a crucial role in preserving and enhancing the cultural and social fabric of Tarnovo during the Ottoman period.
Administrative and Military Significance of Tarnovo
Administrative Structure Under Ottoman Rule
During the Ottoman period, Tarnovo emerged as an administrative center. The Ottoman Empire organized Tarnovo as a district (kaza) within the Niğbolu Sanjak, making it part of the Ottoman bureaucracy. Tarnovo served as a center where Ottoman officials oversaw local administrative affairs. During the Tanzimat reforms of the 19th century, Tarnovo was initially attached to the Vidin Province and later to the Silistra Province. Following the proclamation of the 1864 Vilayet Law, Tarnovo became one of the sanjak centers of the Danube Province.
Due to its strategic importance, Tarnovo also became a deployment zone for Ottoman military forces in the Balkans and Central Europe. The city’s military presence helped secure Ottoman dominance in the region and maintained the safety of nearby cities.
City Security and Defense During the Ottoman Period
Tarnovo’s role as a strategic military base for the Ottoman Empire also involved ensuring the city's security. The Ottoman administration stationed a military unit in the Tsarevets Fortress, which was used for the city’s defense. The fortress was fortified as part of the Ottoman military strategy, playing a key role in maintaining peace in the city.
Tarnovo’s integration into Ottoman rule marked its transformation into a part of the Ottoman dominion in the Balkans. The city reflected the cultural and architectural influence of the Ottomans while maintaining its existence as an administrative, military, and trade center. Throughout this period, Tarnovo preserved its multicultural character.
Tarnovo from the 19th Century to the Present Day
Tarnovo in the Second Half of the 19th Century and the Bulgarian Nationalist Movement
The second half of the 19th century marked the decline of the Ottoman Empire in the Balkans. During this period, Veliko Tarnovo became an important center of the Bulgarian national awakening. As the pursuit of independence rose within the Ottoman Empire, the Bulgarian society also sought to reclaim its cultural and religious identity. Schools were established in Tarnovo, and churches became active social centers. Tarnovo emerged as a hub for national movements in education, language, and religion.
Following the Bulgarian Orthodox Church's achievement of independent status in Istanbul during the 1860s, Bulgarians in Tarnovo organized around their churches to strengthen their national identity. The Bulgarian Exarchate, established in 1869, left a significant impact on Tarnovo’s religious and social life. During the Russo-Turkish War of 1877–1878, Tarnovo was one of the first cities occupied by the Russian army. With Russia’s support, Bulgaria gained independence, and the Treaty of Berlin in 1878 established the Principality of Bulgaria. Tarnovo briefly served as the capital of the Bulgarian Principality, where the constitutional process began. The 1879 Tarnovo Constitution, Bulgaria’s first modern constitution, was adopted here. During this period, the majority of Turks in Tarnovo were forced to migrate due to violence from Russian and Bulgarian forces, exemplifying the forced migrations of the time.
The Bulgarian Principality and Independence
The Treaty of Berlin in 1878 granted the Bulgarian Principality independence from the Ottoman Empire. During the Principality period, Tarnovo retained its political and cultural significance, playing a key role in the development of Bulgarian national identity and statehood. In 1885, the unification of the Bulgarian Principality with Eastern Rumelia elevated Tarnovo’s symbolic importance. In 1908, Bulgaria declared full independence from the Ottoman Empire, and this independence was proclaimed in Tarnovo by the former prince and new Tsar Ferdinand on September 22, 1908.
The Streets of Old Tarnovo Today
The Early 20th Century: Modernization and Urban Development in Tarnovo
At the beginning of the 20th century, Tarnovo underwent significant transformations. The spread of electricity, the establishment of transportation networks, and the rise of industrial activities contributed to the city's rapid modernization. Factories and businesses established in the 1900s played a crucial role in Veliko Tarnovo's economic development. As part of Bulgaria's urbanization process, municipal efforts in Tarnovo accelerated, leading to organized streets, the construction of new buildings, and the establishment of social facilities.
The 20th Century: Wars and Political Transformations
Veliko Tarnovo Between the Two World Wars
The two World Wars had a profound impact on the demographic and economic structure of Tarnovo, as was the case for all of Bulgaria. During World War I, Bulgaria's shifting alliances and the devastation caused by the war led to significant social and economic challenges in the city. Some buildings were damaged, and the population faced economic hardships. However, between the wars, Tarnovo experienced significant progress, especially in the fields of art and education. The 1920s saw the establishment of schools, cultural institutions, and new trade centers, marking the beginning of Bulgaria's economic recovery.
During this period, the Bulgarian people's interest in art and education was palpable in Tarnovo. The founding of the People’s University in 1929 and the establishment of new schools contributed to the city's intellectual reputation. Tarnovo also became notable for its efforts to preserve historical heritage, with many historic structures being restored.
The Socialist Era: Collectivization and Industrialization
In 1944, Bulgaria became a socialist state, and Tarnovo became part of this new governance system. During this period, policies of industrialization and collectivization were implemented, leading to the establishment of new industrial facilities and agricultural cooperatives in Tarnovo. Within the framework of the planned economy promoted by the socialist regime, the city saw the construction of housing projects, factories, and social services.
Throughout the socialist era, a comprehensive urbanization initiative was undertaken in Tarnovo, resulting in a rapid population increase and the development of new residential areas. In the 1960s and 1970s, the construction of large concrete apartment blocks significantly altered the city's appearance. Extensive archaeological excavations were conducted on Tsarevets Hill during this period, transforming the area into a museum site reflecting Bulgaria's national history. In 1965, the title "Veliko" (Great) was added to the city's name to emphasize its cultural and historical importance. In 1985, sound and light shows began on Tsarevets Hill, boosting Tarnovo's appeal as a tourist destination. The socialist regime also oversaw the creation of parks, cultural centers, and sports complexes, solidifying Veliko Tarnovo's reputation as one of Bulgaria’s cultural capitals through festivals and theatrical events.
Post-1989: Transition to Democracy and Cultural Revival
The Transition from Socialism to Democracy
With the end of the socialist regime in Bulgaria in 1989, Veliko Tarnovo experienced significant economic, political, and cultural changes. The transition saw a shift towards a private-sector economy; state-owned factories were privatized, and new employment opportunities were created. During this period, private entrepreneurs established hotels, restaurants, and cultural and artistic enterprises in the city.
Veliko Tarnovo underwent a rapid period of growth in tourism and commerce. Despite the challenges of transitioning to democracy in the 1990s, Tarnovo became one of Bulgaria’s key tourist destinations. Historical sites such as Tsarevets Fortress, Trapezitsa Hill, and the Church of the Forty Martyrs attracted tourists, while cultural events opened Veliko Tarnovo to international tourism.
Economic Restructuring and European Union Membership
Bulgaria's accession to the European Union in 2007 brought significant developments in tourism, infrastructure, and the economy to Veliko Tarnovo. With EU funding, infrastructure projects were carried out, including the renovation of roads, bridges, and social facilities. Historical landmarks were restored with EU support, enhancing Veliko Tarnovo’s appeal as a cultural and tourist hub.
During this period, Veliko Tarnovo began to be referred to as "Bulgaria’s historical and spiritual capital," and interest in Bulgarian identity and history grew. Various cultural festivals, music events, and exhibitions were organized annually, drawing both local and international visitors to the city.
