Educational Reforms during the Reign of Abdulhamid II

Abdülhamid II (1876–1909) was a period of profound transformations in the Ottoman education system. The reforms implemented during this time were shaped both as part of modernization efforts and as a means to strengthen central authority. Educational policies were designed by synthesizing Western models with Islamic values, aiming to produce individuals equipped with both technical knowledge and moral principles.

During the reign of Abdülhamid II, the education system was centralized. Within the Ministry of Education (Maarif Nezareti), general directorates and inspectorates were established for each level of instruction, and provincial education directorates were set up in provincial capitals. As a result, educational activities came under central control, and a standardized national education policy was implemented across the empire.

A significant increase in school enrollment was observed during this period. In addition to primary-level sıbyan mektepleri, schools at the rüştiye (middle school), idadi (high school), and sultani (post-high school) levels were established.

During Abdülhamid II’s reign, the number of rüştiye schools rose from 250 to 600, idadi schools from 5 to 104, and the number of iptidai (primary) schools reached approximately 5,000.

Eski Ali Paşa İptidaisi

Laleli İptidaisi

Rüstem Paşa İptidaisi

Mahmudiye İptidaisi

Beylerbeyi İptidaisi

İstinye İptidaisi

Yeniköy İptidaisi

Fatih İptidaisi

Süleymaniye İptidaisi

Vezneciler İptidaisi

Fevziye İptidaisi

Kanlıca İptidaisi

Çengelköy İptidaisi

İbrahim Ağa Çayırı İptidaisi

Şehzade İptidaisi

Beşiktaş İptidaisi

Küçük Langa İptidaisi

Koca Mustafa Paşa İptidaisi

Hafız Paşa İptidaisi

Haydarhane İptidaisi

Deveoğlu İptidaisi

Bayrampaşa İptidaisi

Hekimoğlu Ali Paşa İptidaisi

Hoca Paşa İptidaisi

Peyman Sultan İptidaisi

Hekim Şirvani İptidaisi

Kalender İptidaisi

Pürtelaş Hasan Efendi İptidaisi

Mihrimah Sultan İptidaisi

Ahmediye İptidaisi

Valide Atik

İskele Başı

Ragıp Paşa İptidaisi

Recai Efendi İptidaisi

Sarıyer İptidaisi

Yüksekkaldırım İptidaisi

Küçükpazar İptidaisi

Abdülislam İptidaisi

Bayram Fırını İptidaisi

Hamidiye İptidaisi

In addition, institutions such as Darülmuallimin (male teacher training college) and Darülmuallimat (female teacher training college) were established to train teachers. These institutions played a crucial role in spreading the modern educational approach.

Abdülhamid II also placed great emphasis on vocational and technical education. Institutions such as Mekteb-i Tıbbiye (Medical School), Mekteb-i Hukuk (Law School), Mekteb-i Mülkiye (School of Political Sciences), and Mekteb-i Harbiye (Military School) were restructured or strengthened during this period. Additionally, new vocational schools were opened, including the Ziraat ve Baytar Mektebi (School of Agriculture and Veterinary Science), Gümrük Mektebi (Customs School), Hamidiye Ticaret Mektebi (Hamidiye Commercial School), and Polis Mektebi (Police School). These institutions ensured the training of qualified civil servants and specialists needed by the state.

Foreign schools in the Ottoman Empire can be classified into two categories: those established by non-Muslim communities within the empire and those founded by foreign missionaries. Some missionary schools established before Abdülhamid II’s reign include St. Pierre, Notre Dame de Sion Girls’ High School, Saint Joseph, Robert College, and American colleges opened in provinces outside Istanbul.

Until 1886, the Ottoman state had no authority to supervise missionary schools. In that year, an inspectorate was established within the Ministry of Education. A report submitted to Sultan Abdülhamid II in 1893 stated that no laws enacted regarding missionary schools had been enforced.

In 1895, a decree mandated that Turkish be used as the language of instruction in mid-level missionary schools in Rumelia and Anatolia, but this effort was unsuccessful. During this period of declining Ottoman power, Orthodox Greeks were protected by Russia, Catholic Armenians by France and Germany, and Protestant Armenians by Britain and the United States.

This protection hindered efforts to make Turkish the language of instruction in these schools. In response, the Ministry of Education required that diplomas issued by foreign schools be validated by the Ministry to be recognized within Ottoman territories. Although attempts were made to establish a control mechanism over missionary schools, they ultimately proved ineffective.

St. Joseph de Peres Georgiens Mektebi

Kadıköy Erkek İlkokulu

Mineurs Convantuels Mektebi

Socurs de Charite Mektebi

Beyoğlu Saint-Antoine Fransız Okulu

Hopital de la Paix adlı Hastahane Rahibeleri Mektebi

Büyükada Saint-Antoine Fransız Okulu

Kadıköy Notre Dame de Sion Fransız İlkokulu

Fenerbahçe Assomption Semineri

Notre Dame de Lourdes Kız İlkokulu

Socur Dominicain Mektebi

Kumkapı Assomption Fransız Koleji

Capucin Kolej ve Mektebi

Fenerbahçe Ste. Irene Fransız Okulu

Soeurs de Charite Mektebi

Augustin de l’Assomption Mektebi

Üsküdar İmmaculee Conception Fransız Koleji

Freres Maristes Mektebi

Haydarpaşa Sainte-Euphemie Fransız Okulu

Oblat de l’Assomption Mektebi

Feriköy St. Jean Chrysostome-Ste.Jeanne d’Arc Fransız Koleji

N.D.’de Lourdes Fransız Okulu

Bebek Saint-Gabriel Fransız Okulu

Alberti Mektebi

Ste. Pulcherie de Lazariste Mektebi

Haydarpaşa Saint-Louis Erkek Koleji

Significant reforms were also carried out in the military domain. Military rüştiye and idadi schools were opened to expand modern military education. These institutions adopted contemporary educational systems and materials of the era. The establishment of military schools in the provinces further extended educational activities throughout the empire.

Abdülhamid II’s educational policies were not limited to the transmission of technical knowledge; they also carried a distinct ideological orientation. Islamic values were emphasized in the curriculum with the aim of producing morally and religiously grounded students. This approach was considered vital for the survival of the state and the maintenance of social order.