Glaciers in Türkiye

Türkiye, due to its geographic location and high mountain ranges, hosts various types of glaciers. Modern glaciers and traces of Late Quaternary glaciation are concentrated especially in the eastern regions of the country, but are also observed in other areas. These glaciers constitute an important field for scientific research and form part of the nation’s natural heritage.

Geographic Distribution of Glaciers

Glaciers in Türkiye are generally located in the more mountainous eastern regions, between 37°N and 41°N latitudes. Modern glaciers can be broadly categorized into three main regions:

1. Southeastern Taurus Mountains: This region hosts Türkiye’s largest and best-preserved valley glaciers. It is particularly known for significant glaciers such as Cilo Dağı (Uludoruk), İzbırak, and Erinç. Glaciers in the Southeastern Taurus Mountains account for approximately 25% of the country’s total glacial area. The current permanent snow line in this region is around 3400–3600 meters.

Cilo Dağı (Pexels)

2. Eastern Black Sea Mountains: These mountains, extending along the Black Sea coast, host numerous glaciers, particularly in the Kaçkar Mountains. Other glaciers of varying sizes are found on Verçenik, Bulut, Altıparmak, Karadağ, and Karagöl mountains. Glaciers in this region also cover approximately 25% of Türkiye’s total glacial area. The permanent snow line here descends to 3100–3200 meters on the northern slopes due to the influence of moist air masses, while it rises to 3500–3550 meters on the southern slopes.

Kaçkar Dağları (Pexels)

3. High Mountains and Extinct Volcanoes of the Anatolian Plateau: Glaciers are also present on extinct volcanoes such as Ağrı Dağı, Erciyes Dağı, and Süphan Dağı, as well as on Mercan (Munzur) Dağları and Esence Dağları. The largest glacier in Türkiye, the Ağrı Dağı ice cap, belongs to this group.

Types and Numbers of Glaciers

Different types of glaciers have been identified in Türkiye. According to inventory studies conducted between 2002 and 2009, the country has a total of 1 ice cap, 50 mountain glaciers (some sources further classify these as 17 mountain glaciers and 33 cirque glaciers/glacierets), and 55 rock glaciers. Including rock glaciers, these glacial features cover a total area of approximately 20.6 km².

1. Ice Cap: Located at the summit of Ağrı Dağı, this is Türkiye’s largest glacier, covering an area of approximately 5.59 km² according to 2008 data.

Ağrı Dağı Ice Cap (Pexels)

2. Mountain/Valley Glaciers: These are especially common in the Southeastern Taurus Mountains. The İzbırak Glacier, at 2.1 km in length, is Türkiye’s longest valley glacier. The Erinç Glacier is approximately 1.5 km long. The Kaçkar I Glacier in the Eastern Black Sea Mountains measures 0.93 km in length.

3. Rock Glaciers: These are significant landforms in Türkiye’s periglacial environments. They cover a total area of approximately 8.02 km² and are concentrated primarily in the Eastern Black Sea Mountains and Mercan Dağları. Fourteen rock glaciers have been identified in the Kavuşşahap Dağları.

Glacier Inventory and Research Studies

The inventory of modern glaciers in Türkiye was conducted using ASTER (Advanced Spaceborne Thermal Emission and Reflection Radiometer) satellite imagery from 2002 to 2009, supplemented by data from Google Earth. These studies were carried out under the international GLIMS (Global Land Ice Measurements from Space) project. Remote sensing techniques such as false-color composites, threshold band ratios, and normalized difference indices were used to distinguish snow and ice areas. Google Earth imagery was also utilized to detect smaller glaciers.

Glacier research in Türkiye historically began in the first half of the 19th century through travel accounts by European explorers. The first scientific studies were conducted in the early 20th century by researchers such as Maunsell and Penther. Later, scientists including Krenek, Bobek, and Erinç carried out modern investigations during the 1930s–1950s. Subsequent researchers such as Kurter, Sungur, and Çiner also contributed to studies on Türkiye’s glaciers.

Glacier Retreat

Glaciers in Türkiye are undergoing significant retreat in parallel with global warming over the past century. Historical measurements of glacier retreat rates are consistent with the impacts of global warming in the region.

1. Southeastern Taurus and Eastern Black Sea Mountains: The most rapid retreat is observed in glaciers of these regions. Average retreat rates have been determined as 11.5–14.7 m/year (for Erinç and Orta Uludoruk glaciers between 1948 and 2009) and 9.3–14.6 m/year (for Kaçkar I, II, and III glaciers between 1948 and 2004). In the Geverok Glacier, a retreat rate of approximately 14 meters per year was calculated between 1937 and 2009.

2. Glaciers on Volcanic Mountains: The glacier on Erciyes Dağı retreated at an average rate of 4.2 meters per year between 1902 and 2008. The Hızır Glacier on Süphan Dağı retreated at approximately 7 meters per year between 1950 and 2008.

3. Ağrı Dağı Ice Cap: This large ice mass has also significantly diminished. Between 1976 and 2008, approximately 30% of the total glacial area disappeared, equivalent to an average annual area loss of 0.06 km².

Climate Conditions for Glaciation

The existence of current glaciers in Türkiye is regarded as a legacy of colder past climatic conditions. Present-day climate conditions, particularly summer temperatures, do not support the formation of new glaciers. One of the most important factors for glaciation is that monthly average temperatures remain below 0°C throughout the summer season. Analyses indicate that this condition is generally not met in Türkiye’s mountainous areas.

According to the Köppen-Geiger climate classification, the polar ice cap (EF) climate type, which supports glacier formation, does not occur within Türkiye’s borders. Instead, the more temperate polar tundra (ET) climate type is found at high elevations. This suggests that most of the existing glaciers persist due to inheritance from past climatic conditions and/or local physiographic factors such as north-facing, shaded cirques. No conclusive evidence has been found to indicate ongoing glaciation; on the contrary, the observed trend is continued retreat of existing glaciers.

In conclusion, glaciers in Türkiye serve as important indicators of climate change and scientific research. The preservation of existing glaciers and the enhancement of public awareness regarding this natural heritage are of critical importance.