Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs is a psychological theory that explains the sources of human motivation. It was introduced in 1943 by American psychologist Abraham Maslow in his article titled “A Theory of Human Motivation.” The theory is based on Maslow’s observations of individuals with good psychological health.

The theory posits that human behavior is directly or indirectly linked to needs and that these needs are organized in a specific hierarchy. According to its fundamental assumption, human needs are unlimited, and the satisfaction of one need gives rise to another. When a lower-level need is sufficiently met, the individual may turn toward a higher-level need.

Structure and Levels of the Theory

Maslow’s model originally classified needs into five fundamental categories. These levels progress from basic physiological requirements toward more complex psychological and individual growth goals.

1. Physiological Needs

This is the most fundamental and strongest level of the hierarchy. It encompasses biological requirements essential for human survival, including breathing, food, water, elimination, sleep, and other metabolic functions. When these needs are unmet, all other needs become secondary.

2. Safety Needs

Once physiological needs are relatively satisfied, safety needs emerge. This level includes the individual’s tendency to seek protection from danger, chaos, and instability. It encompasses elements such as physical safety, health, job security, resources (property, family), and moral security.

3. Love and Belonging Needs

After physiological and safety needs are met, individuals turn toward social needs. This level expresses the desire for friendship, family, sexual intimacy, and belonging to a group or community. Individuals feel a need to form affectionate relationships and to be loved.

4. Esteem Needs

The fourth level encompasses both the individual’s self-respect (self-esteem) and the need for respect from others. Maslow divided these needs into two subcategories:

• Lower Level: The need for respect from others; the desire for recognition, prestige, attention, and appreciation.

• Higher Level: The need for self-respect; the desire for strength, achievement, competence, self-confidence, independence, and freedom.

5. Self-Actualization

This is the highest level of the original hierarchy. Maslow described this state as “becoming all that one is capable of becoming” or “a man should be what he can be.” It involves the individual becoming aware of their personal potential, discovering latent talents, and exhibiting traits such as creativity, problem-solving, open-mindedness, and acceptance of truth.

Piramidal Representation and Historical Development

Maslow’s hierarchy of needs is commonly represented as a pyramid. However, there is no evidence in Maslow’s own writings that he ever depicted the theory using a pyramid diagram. Maslow described the model as a dynamic process and used a staircase shape in one of his sketches.

The pyramid visualization of the hierarchy emerged later in management literature. One of the earliest pyramid-like representations appeared in a 1957 management textbook by Keith Davis, which used a triangular step format. Charles McDermid, writing in the journal Business Horizons in 1960, is credited with first using the pyramid form now widely recognized today (referred to as Figure 2 in the source).

Evolution of the Theory: Self-Transcendence

In the later years of his life, Maslow revised his original five-stage model. Particularly in his 1969 writings and subsequent works, he introduced a sixth level beyond self-actualization: Self-Transcendence.

This concept has been emphasized by researchers such as Koltko-Rivera (2006) as an extension of Maslow’s work. Self-transcendence represents the highest level of psychological development.

• Self-Actualization vs. Self-Transcendence: Self-actualization relates primarily to the individual’s internal growth, awareness of potential, and attainment of the “ideal self”; self-transcendence involves “going beyond the self.”

• Definition: Self-transcendence occurs when an individual’s motivation extends beyond their own ego. It includes the desire to serve others, share knowledge unconditionally, dedicate oneself to a higher ideal (such as social justice or art), or unite with a greater power (such as the divine). It is also associated with peak experiences; for example, feeling a sense of unity beyond the self through mystical, aesthetic, or nature-based experiences.

Criticisms and Reinterpretations

Although Maslow’s theory is one of the foundational theories in motivation, it has faced various criticisms. These criticisms generally focus on its methodology and hierarchical structure.

Methodological Criticisms

The scientific methodology of the theory has been questioned. Maslow developed his theory not through broad empirical research but primarily by analyzing biographies and personal observations of individuals he considered exceptional and successful, such as Albert Einstein. This approach makes the theory difficult to test empirically.

Criticisms of the Hierarchical Structure

The most frequently criticized aspect of the theory is its assumption that needs follow a rigid, sequential hierarchy.

• Cultural Relativity: It has been argued that the theory reflects Western, particularly American, individualistic values and cannot be easily applied to cultures with communal or collectivist lifestyles.

• Exceptions to the Order: Numerous exceptions to the hierarchical order have been observed in real life. For example, some artists, mystics, or idealists may pursue self-actualization or transcendence even when basic physiological or safety needs are unmet (as in voluntary poverty). Similarly, for some individuals, self-esteem may take precedence over love and belonging.

• Lack of Empirical Support: A 2011 study involving 123 countries found that while Maslow’s identified needs are universal, their order of satisfaction does not follow a strict hierarchy. The study concluded that higher-level needs such as autonomy and respect influence life satisfaction regardless of whether lower-level needs are fulfilled.

Reinterpretation as an Integrated Process

In light of these criticisms, some scholars argue that Maslow’s intent was not to propose a rigid pyramid but rather a dynamic process. According to this view, needs are not hierarchical or compartmentalized; instead, they form an interactive, dynamic, and integrated system.

Needs do not exclude one another nor are they independent. An individual may simultaneously experience partial satisfaction or dissatisfaction across all basic needs. For example, social needs (belonging) are not merely a consequence of physiological and safety needs being met; rather, they are a prerequisite for fulfilling those needs, such as through cooperation in securing shelter or food. Under this approach, the model is more accurately represented as an “integrated network of needs,” as shown in Figure 2 (referenced in the source), with self-actualization at the center and all needs interconnected.

Applications and Contemporary Relevance

Maslow’s theory is applied in many fields, including management, business, sociology, psychology, and especially education. In education, the theory is used to understand students’ changing needs and to create appropriate learning environments. Factors affecting learning may include unmet basic needs such as hunger or insecurity.

Technological advances and social changes do not alter the nature of needs themselves but affect how they are satisfied.

• Social Media: Social media platforms offer new ways for individuals to satisfy their need for belonging (through virtual communities and friend lists) and esteem (through likes, appreciation, and comment counts).

• Security: Technology has also impacted the need for security; cyberbullying and online environments can threaten this need.

• Crisis Periods: Crises such as the COVID-19 pandemic have caused sudden shifts in individuals’ priorities. Research has shown that during the pandemic, workers’ priorities shifted so that physiological needs (health, work environment) and safety needs (fear of job loss) became more urgent than higher-level needs such as self-actualization.