Osmanli House refers to a residential type that developed over centuries across the geographical area of the Ottoman Empire, particularly in Anatolia and Rumelia, acquiring distinctive characteristics. This term is often used synonymously with the concept of the “Turkish House” and may also encompass regional designations such as “Anatolian House.” In academic discourse, particularly through the works of Sedad Hakkı Eldem, an idealized concept of the “Turkish House” came to the forefront, around which typological and measured surveys were shaped. Although criticisms of this concept increased from the 1970s onward, these paradigms have continued to serve as a significant reference point in discussions of Ottoman or Anatolian domestic culture. In recent years, research based on Ottoman written documents has revealed a greater diversity in domestic architecture than the idealized typologies suggest.
Historical Development and Origins
The roots of the Ottoman House extend back to the nomadic lifestyle of the Turks in Central Asia. Similarities are drawn between the interior arrangement of the nomadic yurt and the Anatolian Turkish room, and it is believed that the clustering of yurts around a central courtyard gave rise to the concept of the Turkish House sofa (hayat). After settling in Anatolia, new concepts such as privacy, influenced by the local settled cultures and the adoption of Islam, played a significant role in shaping the house. Some researchers note that the courtyard structure and gender-based spatial segregation of Hellenistic-era houses were reflected in urban dwellings in Islamic cities.
In the “Turkish House” construct initiated by Celal Esad Arseven and prominently developed by Sedad Hakkı Eldem, variations were generally attributed to environmental factors such as climate and local materials. However, multiple factors contributed to the formation of the house.
Factors Influencing the Formation of the Ottoman House
Various factors shaped the development of the Ottoman House:
- Social Life and Traditions: The extended family structure necessitated multiple spaces. Houses were designed to accommodate food storage, production activities (such as carpet and kilim weaving), and separate areas for newly married family members.
- Religion: The influence of Islam fostered a sense of privacy, leading to more inward-oriented house designs and the emergence of gender-specific spaces such as the haremlik and selamlık. The positioning of windows to avoid visibility into neighboring homes is a manifestation of this sensitivity.
- Climate and Geographic Location: Climatic differences and geographic conditions directly influenced house design. For instance, houses built on steep slopes in the Black Sea region differ from those constructed on flat plains due to topographic factors. While the courtyard was a key element in Southeastern Anatolia, in Eastern Anatolia, where winters are long, courtyards could be located at ground level. Houses were typically built on sloping terrain to ensure each dwelling had an open view and optimal sun exposure.
- Materials: Materials varied by region but generally included wood, stone, and adobe. Wood was widely used as a structural material. Stone dominated in Southeastern Anatolia, timber-framed stone in Eastern Anatolia, timber-frame construction in Eastern Black Sea, cubical stone with flat roofs in the Aegean and Mediterranean, and stone-adobe architecture in Central Anatolia.
- Socioeconomic Status: The family’s livelihood also affected the house plan. Homes of families engaged in animal husbandry often had ground-floor sections designated as stables and storage, while those involved in crafts included dedicated workspaces.
Architectural Features
The Ottoman House is defined by specific formal and spatial characteristics. Design typically evolved from interior to exterior, prioritizing practical solutions scaled to human use.
- Settlement and Street Layout: Ottoman cities generally developed organically in neighborhoods (mahalles). Neighborhoods formed around mosques, fountains, or squares. Houses adapted to the natural flow of streets; ground floors did not protrude into the street, while upper floors extended outward to achieve desired spatial configurations. Streets were designed at a human scale and typically connected to the neighborhood mosque or commercial center. Cul-de-sacs were common to preserve privacy.
- Plan Types and Sofa (Hayat): The fundamental determinant of Ottoman House plans is the arrangement of rooms around the sofa (or hayat). The sofa is a shared space that connects rooms and facilitates circulation and communal activities. Sedad Hakkı Eldem identified four primary plan types based on the sofa’s location:
- Plan without Sofa: The most primitive type, in which rooms are arranged side by side and each is accessed directly from outside. Common in houses with gardens or internal courtyards.
- External Sofa Plan: Rooms are aligned along one side of the sofa, which opens outward. A kiosk or eyvan may be added at the end of the sofa. “L” and “U” shaped plans may result. The corner sofa type is common in Safranbolu houses.
- Internal Sofa Plan (“Karnıyarık”): The sofa is enclosed within the house, with rooms arranged on both sides. It became prominent in the 18th century and widespread in the 19th century. Considered an economical and healthy plan type. A kiosk or sekilik may be located at one or both ends of the sofa.
- Central Sofa Plan: The sofa is located at the center of the house, with rooms arranged around it. The building is typically square or near-square in plan. Service spaces such as stairs, eyvans, and storage areas may be placed between rooms. The corners of the sofa may be chamfered to form octagonal, polygonal, or oval shapes. The oval or elliptical sofa type is regarded as the most advanced form of this plan and is commonly found in the homes of administrators in large cities. Frequently seen in Safranbolu mansions.
- Floor Plan and Facade Features: Ottoman houses are generally one or more stories, but the primary living level is most often the uppermost floor.
- Ground Floor (Taşlık): Typically allocated to service areas such as the kitchen, stable, storage, and hayloft, and not used for sitting. Walls could be masonry and windowless.
- Intermediate Floor: A floor between the ground and main levels, with lower ceilings and not fully covering the building’s footprint. Daily use or winter rooms could be located here. It gained increasing importance from the 19th century onward.
- Upper Floor (Main Floor): The primary living area, featuring higher ceilings, abundant windows, and wooden ceilings. Designed to maximize views, light, and ventilation.
- Protrusions (Cumba): Architectural elements allowing upper floors to extend outward toward the street or garden. Built to expand space and improve views and lighting, they were supported by brackets.
- Eaves: Wide eaves protected the structure from rain and sun.
- Windows: Traditionally, two-tiered windows were used; lower windows were larger and operable, while upper windows (tepe penceresi) were smaller, fixed, and often ornamental. Window heights were adjusted to allow visibility from seating level. Sliding windows began to appear from the late 17th century. In the 19th century, the use of upper windows declined or their size was reduced.
- Materials and Construction Techniques:
- Foundation: Excavated to reach solid ground; large stones were placed at the base and mud mortar was used.
- Ground Floor Walls: Built with stone and mud mortar, sometimes incorporating wooden frames.
- Upper Floor Walls: The wooden frame (hımış) system was common. The frame spaces were filled with adobe, brick, or small stones (in Safranbolu, known as “yeğdane” or “küfünk taşı”). Interior and exterior wall surfaces were plastered with lime-washed mud.
- Floors and Ceilings: Floors were generally wooden. Ceilings were constructed with wooden beams covered by planks and decorated with various geometric patterns, medallions, or penwork ornamentation. The “boat ceiling” technique was widespread.
Interior Spatial Organization
The interior spaces of the Ottoman House were shaped according to lifestyle and cultural values.
- Room: The fundamental unit of domestic life, serving multiple functions including sitting, sleeping, eating, and working. Typically rectangular or nearly square in plan. Access to the room was usually through a transitional space called “seki altı” or “pabuçluk”; the main seating area, known as “sekilik,” was raised one step above and surrounded by built-in benches. However, this level difference began to disappear in the 19th century.
- Fixed Furnishings: Key elements included built-in benches (sedir) along the walls, storage units (yüklük) for bedding and blankets, cabinets (which could include a gusülhane or washing niche), hearths (for heating and sometimes cooking), and sergen or terek (wall-mounted shelves). The “turning cabinet” provided a practical solution for service between the haremlik and selamlık.
- Sofa (Hayat): Rooms opened onto the sofa, which served as the central space connecting rooms, facilitating circulation, and hosting communal activities. Stairs were typically located at one end of the sofa. The sofa could feature specialized seating areas such as eyvans, kiosks, or sekilik.
- Service Spaces: The kitchen (matbah) could be located on the ground floor, upper floor, or outside the house. The pantry (kiler) for food storage, the treasury (hazine) for unused items, the stable (ahır), and the courtyard (avlu/hayat) were other important spaces. The courtyard was especially significant in Southeastern Anatolian houses, often containing a well, pergola, and sometimes a pool.
- Haremlik-Selamlık (Dahiliye-Hariciye): In larger mansions, a clear distinction existed between the private living area for women (haremlik/dahiliye) and the public area for male guests and external affairs (selamlık/hariciye). This division was closely linked to the concept of privacy. The dahiliye and hariciye sections sometimes had separate courtyards. The hariciye was more open to public life, while the dahiliye constituted the more private and intimate part of the house. Bathrooms and kitchens were typically located within the dahiliye, while stables were generally part of the hariciye.
The 19th Century and Transformation
During the 19th century, Westernization movements brought significant changes to the Ottoman House.
- In floor plans, particularly in large cities like Istanbul, centrally planned (oval sofa) types were abandoned for economic reasons in favor of the internal sofa plan.
- The distinction between seki altı and seki üstü disappeared, and European-style furniture became widespread. This led to the loss of function of sedir or their elevation above floor level. “Sandalyalık,” continuous wall-mounted seating, emerged.
- The importance of upper windows diminished; lower windows increased in size and height above the floor.
- Sofas began to replace hearths for heating.
The Ottoman House is more than mere shelter; it is a complex structure reflecting a way of life, social structure, and aesthetic sensibility. It diversified across different geographies to adapt to local conditions while preserving its fundamental principles for an extended period.
