The Russo-Japanese War (1904-1905) arose from the struggle for dominance over Korea and Manchuria between Japan and Russia. Russia's expansion in Manchuria and its transformation of Port Arthur into a military base were perceived as a threat by Japan. Japan proposed that Russia recognize its influence in Korea, but Russia rejected this offer through delaying tactics. With diplomatic support secured through its alliance with Britain in 1902, Japan launched a surprise attack on the Russian fleet at Port Arthur on February 8, 1904, initiating the war. The Japanese gained superiority in both land and naval battles, significantly weakening Russia's military presence in the Far East.

In 1905, the war ended in a major victory for Japan. Japanese ground forces defeated the Russian army in the Battle of Mukden, while at sea, Admiral Togo’s fleet completely annihilated the Russian Baltic Fleet in the Tsushima Strait. Following this crushing defeat, Russia recognized its inability to continue the war and agreed to peace negotiations. With the Treaty of Portsmouth (1905), Russia withdrew from Manchuria, acknowledged Japan's dominance over Korea, and ceded South Sakhalin to Japan. This war was a historic turning point, marking the first time in modern history that an Asian nation defeated a major European power. It elevated Japan to global power status while exacerbating social unrest in Russia, paving the way for the 1905 Revolution.

Diplomatic Situation in the World Before the War

Before the outbreak of the Russo-Japanese War in 1904, global politics were shaped by alliances and conflicts of interest among major powers. In Europe, the blocs of the Triple Alliance (Germany, Austria-Hungary, Italy) and the Triple Entente (Britain, France, Russia) were becoming more defined, while in Asia, the struggle for influence over Manchuria and Korea between Russia and Japan was escalating rapidly.

Throughout the 19th century, Britain followed a policy of "Splendid Isolation," maintaining a balance of power on the European continent. However, due to Russia’s expansionist policies in Asia, Britain shifted its diplomatic stance by signing the Anglo-Japanese Alliance in 1902. This alliance provided diplomatic backing for Japan in case of war with Russia while also serving to protect Britain against the Russian threat in Asia. France, being a traditional ally of Russia, did not adopt an openly hostile stance against Japan but continued to support its Russian ally.

Germany, on the other hand, sought to maintain good relations with Russia while simultaneously benefiting from the Anglo-Japanese alliance by keeping Russia preoccupied in Asia, thus gaining a strategic advantage in European power dynamics. The Ottoman-Japanese relations during this period were also dynamic. Although the Ottoman Empire remained diplomatically neutral, it was uneasy about Russian pressure over the Straits and viewed Japan’s weakening of Russia as a favorable development. During this time, the Ottoman Empire pursued a strategy of "twilight diplomacy."

While competing with Britain and Japan in Asia, Russia was also attempting to expand its influence in the Balkans through Austria-Hungary, further complicating its relations with Germany and intensifying struggles over Ottoman territories. The United States, although not directly involved in the war, maintained good relations with Japan and supported the Open Door Policy in China to protect its economic interests in the region.

Causes of the War

The Russo-Japanese War of 1904-1905 was not merely a regional conflict between two states but also a consequence of global power dynamics and imperial expansion policies. The war was driven by geopolitical struggles in Asia, Russia’s regional expansion efforts, Japan’s rising power, and significant international diplomatic developments.

Competition Over Manchuria and Korea

By the late 19th century, Japan and Russia were engaged in direct competition for influence in Manchuria and the Korean Peninsula. Japan sought to keep Korea within its security sphere and turn it into a buffer zone. The prospect of Korea falling under the control of a major power, especially Russia, was considered a serious threat to Japan’s national security.

On the other hand, Russia viewed Manchuria as part of its sphere of influence. By an agreement with China on June 3, 1896, Russia began constructing the China-Eastern Railway, and on December 2, 1898, it secured long-term leases of the Port Arthur and Dalian harbors, reinforcing its military presence in the region. While this move bolstered Russia’s power in the Far East, it posed a direct threat to Japan’s interests. Japan feared that if Russia solidified its presence in Manchuria, Korea would inevitably fall under Russian control. Therefore, forcing Russia’s withdrawal from the region became a critical objective for Japan.

Russia’s Imperial Policies in Asia

Throughout the 19th century, Russia pursued expansionist policies both in the West, against the Ottoman Empire and Austria-Hungary, and in the East, reaching the Pacific coast via Siberia. The construction of the Trans-Siberian Railway and the rise of Vladivostok as a crucial Far Eastern port were key aspects of Russia’s efforts to increase its influence in Asia.

Russia aimed to capitalize on China’s weakness to gain more territory in Manchuria. The Boxer Rebellion (1899-1901) provided Russia with an opportunity to increase its military presence in the region. Although Russian troops were sent to Manchuria under the pretext of suppressing the rebellion, they remained there even after the crisis had ended. This was one of the key factors that exhausted Japan’s patience.

Additionally, Russia’s long-standing ambition to access warm-water ports played a role in its Far Eastern strategy. Since its route to the Mediterranean via the Black Sea and the Straits was blocked by the Ottoman Empire, Russia sought alternative naval bases in the Pacific. The seizure of Port Arthur and its development into a major naval base was part of this broader strategy. Japan, however, viewed Russian control of Port Arthur as a direct threat to its regional interests.

Japan’s Rise as a Regional Power

Following the Meiji Restoration (1868), Japan underwent rapid modernization, adopting Western military and economic models and emerging as an industrial and naval power. Its victory in the First Sino-Japanese War (1894-1895) solidified Japan’s status as the dominant Asian power. Under the Treaty of Shimonoseki, Japan gained control of the Liaodong Peninsula, Taiwan, and the Penghu Islands. However, under pressure from Germany, France, and especially Russia, Japan was forced to relinquish the Liaodong Peninsula. This diplomatic setback fueled resentment in Japan, where many believed that Western powers were deliberately curbing Japanese expansion to protect their own interests in Asia.

This episode convinced Japan that it needed a robust military and diplomatic strategy to safeguard its regional interests. Japan came to view Russian expansion in Asia as an existential threat and signaled its willingness to go to war if diplomatic negotiations failed.

The Anglo-Japanese Alliance (1902) and International Power Balances

Throughout the 19th century, Britain sought to counter Russian expansion in Asia, particularly in Central Asia and China, in what became known as "The Great Game." Russia’s growing power in the Far East also posed a threat to Britain’s interests. To counterbalance Russian influence, Britain signed an alliance with Japan on January 30, 1902, offering diplomatic backing to Japan.

This alliance had several key implications:

• If Japan went to war with Russia, Britain would prevent Russia from receiving European support.
• Japan gained the political and diplomatic backing of Britain, strengthening its position in the region.
• Russia was placed in a diplomatically isolated position, making war more challenging for it.

These developments emboldened Japan to take a more aggressive stance. Realizing that diplomatic efforts would not deter Russia’s expansionist policies, Japan concluded that military confrontation was inevitable.

Attack on Port Arthur (February 8-9, 1904)

The attack on Port Arthur marked the official start of the Russo-Japanese War and served as a significant example of the effectiveness of surprise attacks in modern naval warfare. On the night of February 8, 1904, before formally declaring war, the Japanese navy launched a sudden assault on Port Arthur (modern-day Lüshun, China), Russia’s most powerful Pacific base.

As Russia continued to reinforce its military presence in Manchuria, it rejected Japan’s diplomatic efforts for a peaceful resolution. Tsar Nicholas II believed that Japan would not dare to declare war, leaving the Russian fleet at Port Arthur largely unprepared. Japan, aiming to neutralize the Russian navy before hostilities officially began, devised a surprise attack. Under the command of Admiral Togo Heihachiro, the Japanese fleet launched a two-phase assault on the Russian warships.

First, at 10:30 PM on February 8, 1904, ten Japanese destroyers approached Port Arthur harbor and launched a torpedo attack at 11:30 PM. Some of Russia’s largest warships, including Retvizan, Tsesarevich, and Pallada, suffered severe damage but did not sink completely as they were anchored in the harbor. The following morning, on February 9, 1904, Japan’s main fleet—comprising 12 battleships and 8 cruisers—initiated a heavy artillery bombardment on Port Arthur. Although Russian coastal batteries and warships returned fire, forcing the Japanese to withdraw, the Russian fleet suffered heavy losses and was effectively trapped in the harbor.

While the Japanese navy did not succeed in completely destroying the Russian fleet at Port Arthur, the attack significantly weakened Russia’s naval power in the region, providing Japan with a crucial advantage for its land operations. Russia condemned the assault as a violation of international law since it occurred before a formal declaration of war. However, Japan’s surprise attack allowed it to take control of the conflict from the outset. This operation became one of the first major naval engagements to highlight the strategic importance of surprise attacks in modern warfare, setting the stage for Japan’s initial dominance in the war.

Naval Battles of 1904

Battle of Chemulpo (Incheon) (February 9, 1904)

Simultaneously with the attack on Port Arthur, the Japanese also targeted Russian ships along the Korean coast. The Russian cruiser Varyag and the gunboat Koreyets, anchored at Chemulpo (modern-day Incheon), were surrounded by the Japanese fleet. The Japanese demanded the surrender of the Russian vessels, but the Russians refused. Varyag and Koreyets engaged the Japanese fleet but suffered heavy damage. To prevent their capture, the Russian crews scuttled their ships.

Battle of the Yellow Sea (August 10, 1904)

The Russian fleet at Port Arthur attempted to break the Japanese blockade and reach Vladivostok but was intercepted by Admiral Togo’s fleet in the Yellow Sea on August 10, 1904. During the battle, Russian Admiral Wilgelm Vitgeft was killed by Japanese artillery fire, and the Russian fleet retreated in disorder. Tsesarevich and several other ships sought refuge in Qingdao (China), while most of the fleet returned to Port Arthur. This battle solidified Japan’s naval dominance and effectively neutralized Russia’s Pacific Fleet.

Battle of Ulsan (August 14, 1904)

Four days after the Battle of the Yellow Sea, the Russian cruiser squadron from Vladivostok attempted to disrupt Japanese convoys but was intercepted by the Japanese navy under Admiral Kamimura Hikonojō off the coast of Ulsan. The Russian cruiser Rurik was sunk, while Rossiya and Gromoboi sustained severe damage. This defeat effectively ended the operational capability of the Russian fleet based in Vladivostok.

Siege of Port Arthur (August 1, 1904 – January 2, 1905)

The fall of Port Arthur was one of the longest and bloodiest sieges of the Russo-Japanese War, serving as a decisive moment that shaped the conflict’s outcome. Beginning on August 1, 1904, and ending with the surrender of the Russian garrison on January 2, 1905, the siege demonstrated Japanese military engineering and tactical superiority, as well as the gradual exhaustion of Russian defenses.

Port Arthur was Russia’s most critical military base in the Pacific, and the Russian Pacific Fleet stationed there posed a significant threat to Japanese expansion in the region. Japan aimed to capture the harbor to eliminate the Russian naval threat and secure its land operations in Manchuria.

Following the initial attack on February 8-9, 1904, the Japanese navy had damaged the Russian fleet but failed to capture the port. While the Japanese fleet maintained a naval blockade, Japanese ground forces launched their land siege on August 1, 1904. Throughout August and September, the Japanese attempted to breach the port’s defensive lines, but Russian forces mounted fierce resistance. One of Japan’s primary objectives was to seize 203 Meter Hill, a strategic high ground that would allow Japanese artillery to directly target the Russian fleet in the harbor. However, early assaults on the hill resulted in heavy Japanese casualties and failed to achieve their objective.

As the siege dragged on for months, the Japanese finally captured 203 Meter Hill on December 5-6, 1904. The fall of this strategic position enabled Japanese artillery to directly bombard the Russian warships in the harbor. On December 9-10, 1904, Japanese shelling sank several Russian warships, including the flagship Sevastopol, effectively destroying the Russian Pacific Fleet. Facing severe shortages of ammunition and food, Russian morale collapsed, and desertions increased. On January 2, 1905, General Anatoli Stessel surrendered the remaining 24,000 Russian troops, giving Japan full control over Port Arthur.

Battle of Tsushima (May 27-28, 1905)

The Battle of Tsushima was the largest naval battle of the Russo-Japanese War and decisively confirmed Japan’s naval supremacy while forcing Russia to accept its defeat in the war. After the fall of Port Arthur and the destruction of the Russian Pacific Fleet, Russia decided to send its Baltic Fleet to the Far East. Under the command of Admiral Zinovy Rozhestvensky, the Second Pacific Squadron departed from the Baltic on October 15, 1904, traveling 33,000 kilometers via the southern coast of Africa. The fleet’s prolonged journey resulted in exhausted crews, depleted supplies, and reduced combat readiness.

Japanese intelligence had already determined the Russian fleet’s route, and Admiral Togo Heihachiro prepared an ambush at the Tsushima Strait. On May 27, 1905, the battle began as the Japanese fleet executed the "T-Crossing Maneuver," placing the Russian ships in a devastating crossfire. The Russian flagship Knyaz Suvorov and several other major warships were destroyed. Japanese destroyers and torpedo boats continued their attacks throughout the night, preventing the Russians from retreating. Out of 38 Russian warships, 21 were sunk and 7 were captured. Over 5,000 Russian sailors were killed, and more than 6,000 were taken as prisoners.

The Battle of Tsushima marked the decisive turning point of the Russo-Japanese War. Russia lost all of its naval power in the Pacific, while Japan emerged as the dominant maritime force in the region. The crushing defeat led to widespread dissatisfaction with the Russian government and contributed to the outbreak of the 1905 Revolution. Furthermore, the loss forced Russia to enter peace negotiations with Japan.

Land Battles (1904-1905)

The land battles of the Russo-Japanese War took place primarily in Korea and Manchuria, where the Japanese army achieved significant victories over Russia through strategic maneuvers and modern warfare tactics. Japan capitalized on its mobility and advanced firepower, while the Russian army struggled with logistical issues, poor command decisions, and overstretched supply lines. Throughout the war, the Japanese systematically forced Russian troops into retreat and secured key victories that determined the war’s outcome.

Battles of the Yalu River and Nanshan

The first major land engagement of the war was the Battle of the Yalu River. After securing full control of the Korean Peninsula, the Japanese army advanced into Manchuria to break through Russian defensive lines. The battle took place on April 30 - May 1, 1904, with Japanese forces successfully crossing the Yalu River and overwhelming the Russian defenders. This victory marked Japan’s first major land success in the war. The Japanese infantry, equipped with modern rifles and artillery, utilized superior mobility to defeat the more static Russian defenses. The triumph at the Yalu River allowed Japan to take the initiative in Manchuria and expand its campaign into larger battles.

Following this success, the Japanese launched the Battle of Nanshan on May 25, 1904, aiming to open the path to Port Arthur. The Japanese army launched a large-scale assault on Russian defensive positions that were heavily fortified. Despite holding an advantageous position, the Russian forces were eventually forced to retreat under intense Japanese artillery fire and relentless infantry attacks. However, the battle resulted in heavy Japanese casualties. With this critical victory, the Japanese army advanced toward Port Arthur and initiated the siege that would eventually break Russian resistance in the region.

Japanese Advance in the Summer of 1904

While the Siege of Port Arthur continued, the Japanese launched the Battle of Telissu on June 14-15, 1904, aiming to push Russian forces further north into Manchuria. Utilizing superior artillery and well-coordinated infantry assaults, the Japanese inflicted heavy losses on the Russian army, forcing a retreat. This victory prevented the Russians from establishing strong defensive positions in Manchuria and accelerated Japan’s advance.

To halt Japanese momentum, Russian forces attempted to hold their ground at the Battle of Tashihchiao on July 24-25, 1904. The Russian army established a strong defensive line to stop the Japanese advance, but Japan’s rapid maneuvers and tactical superiority led to another victory. The defeat forced Russian troops to withdraw toward Liaoyang in an effort to regroup and establish a stronger defensive position.

Between August 24 and September 3, 1904, the Battle of Liaoyang took place, marking one of the first large-scale battles in Manchuria. The Russian army mounted determined resistance against Japanese advances, but ultimately, Japanese forces managed to break through the Russian defensive lines and capture the city. Suffering heavy losses, the Russian army was forced into retreat toward Mukden. This Japanese victory solidified their foothold in Manchuria and allowed them to maintain strategic dominance in the region.

Battles of Shahe and Sandepu

Following their defeat at Liaoyang, Russian forces attempted to regain momentum by launching a counteroffensive in the Battle of Shahe from October 5-17, 1904. The Russians launched a large-scale attack on Japanese positions while retreating from Liaoyang, hoping to stall Japan’s advance. However, the Japanese defensive lines held firm, and the Russian assault ultimately failed. The battle resulted in heavy Russian losses and forced them to retreat further, allowing Japan to maintain its strategic superiority.

As winter set in, the Russian army launched another offensive in the Battle of Sandepu between January 25-29, 1905. The Russians attempted a breakthrough against Japanese lines, but once again, their attacks proved unsuccessful. The Japanese army, with well-fortified positions and effective counterattacks, repelled the Russian advance. This battle further consolidated Japan’s control in Manchuria while weakening Russia’s ability to defend its remaining positions in the region.

Battle of Mukden (February 20 – March 10, 1905)

The Battle of Mukden was the largest and bloodiest land battle of the Russo-Japanese War, marking Japan’s decisive victory in Manchuria and forcing Russia into retreat. Fought between February 20 and March 10, 1905, the battle saw the Japanese army under General Oyama Iwao, commanding approximately 300,000 troops, launching an offensive against Russia’s largest defensive stronghold in Manchuria. The Russian army, led by General Aleksey Kuropatkin, fielded 340,000 soldiers in an effort to halt Japan’s advance. Despite their numerical advantage, the Russians were ultimately outmaneuvered by the Japanese, whose superior tactics, swift movements, and artillery fire overwhelmed Russian defenses.

The Japanese forces gradually encircled Mukden, cutting off Russian supply lines and forcing their troops out of the city. On March 6, the Russian right flank collapsed, and by March 9, the Russian army began a full-scale retreat from Mukden. On March 10, 1905, Japanese troops entered and secured the city.

The battle resulted in over 90,000 Russian casualties compared to 75,000 Japanese losses. This devastating defeat led Russia to lose its strategic initiative in the war, ultimately paving the way for peace negotiations. With the fall of Mukden, Japan gained full control over Manchuria, significantly reducing Russia’s influence in the region. The battle also had far-reaching consequences, shaking public confidence in the Russian government and contributing to the outbreak of the 1905 Russian Revolution. Meanwhile, Japan’s victory further solidified its status as a major military power, demonstrating its dominance on land as well as at sea.

Sakhalin Invasion (June 14 – July 31, 1905)

As the war neared its conclusion, Japan launched an amphibious invasion of Sakhalin Island, a Russian territory, on June 14, 1905. The objective was to increase pressure on Russia and secure an additional bargaining chip in peace negotiations. Japan anticipated encountering strong Russian resistance due to the island’s strategic importance. However, the Russian garrison was poorly prepared and was quickly overwhelmed by the speed and logistical superiority of the Japanese forces.

Throughout July 1905, Japanese troops advanced northward, systematically dismantling Russian defenses. By July 31, 1905, the remaining Russian forces on the island surrendered, and Japan fully occupied Sakhalin Island. This victory was one of Japan’s last major land successes in the war.

Treaty of Portsmouth

The Treaty of Portsmouth formally ended the Russo-Japanese War and recognized Japan’s dominance in Asia. Russia was compelled to negotiate peace following its loss of Port Arthur (January 2, 1905), defeat at Mukden (March 10, 1905), and the destruction of its Baltic Fleet at the Battle of Tsushima (May 27-28, 1905). While Russia was dealing with domestic unrest (1905 Russian Revolution), Japan was also struggling under the economic burden of prolonged warfare. With U.S. President Theodore Roosevelt acting as mediator, peace talks began on August 9, 1905, and concluded with the signing of the Treaty of Portsmouth on September 5, 1905.

Under the terms of the treaty:

• Russia renounced all claims over Korea, recognizing Japan’s dominance in the region.
• Liaodong Peninsula (including Port Arthur and Dalian) and the South Manchurian Railway were transferred to Japan.
• Russia ceded the southern half of Sakhalin Island to Japan.
• Japan’s demand for war reparations was rejected, leading to domestic dissatisfaction among the Japanese population.

Although the lack of financial compensation angered the Japanese public, the treaty solidified Japan’s status as a great power and expanded its influence across East Asia. Meanwhile, Russia’s defeat forced it to abandon its Far Eastern ambitions and redirect its focus toward European affairs.

The treaty’s international consequences reshaped global power dynamics. Japan was now acknowledged by Western powers as a dominant force in Asia, altering the regional balance. The United States closely monitored Japan’s rise, leading to future tensions between the two nations. President Theodore Roosevelt, for his role in brokering the peace, was awarded the 1906 Nobel Peace Prize. In Russia, the defeat further undermined Tsar Nicholas II’s authority, accelerating unrest and fueling the 1905 Revolution. The Treaty of Portsmouth symbolized Japan’s emergence as a world power and the end of Russian supremacy in the Far East.