Still life is a genre of painting that depicts inanimate objects and everyday items together. Objects such as flowers, fruits, food, tableware, musical instruments, or books are represented within an arranged composition.

While still life appeared as a secondary element in medieval manuscripts and religious paintings of the Renaissance, it became an independent genre from the 16th century onward. Particularly popular in 17th-century Dutch and Flemish painting, still life attracted attention with both its visual richness and its symbolic meanings. In vanitas examples, the themes of mortality and the transience of life were explored, while in trompe-l’œil styles, the aim of creating optical illusions came to the forefront.

History and Development

Early Precursors

Before still life emerged as an independent genre, depictions of inanimate objects appeared as secondary elements in the art of various cultures. In antiquity, Roman wall paintings uncovered in the excavations of Pompeii and Herculaneum included detailed representations of food, vessels, and flowers. These examples are considered the starting point of the still life tradition, as they turned the objects of daily life into pictorial subjects.

In the Middle Ages, representations of objects were found primarily in manuscripts and religious compositions. Calendar pages featured seasonal produce, while liturgical objects were depicted in detail within religious scenes. During this period, inanimate objects were not treated as an autonomous pictorial genre but rather as complementary elements to the text or sacred narrative.

The Renaissance and the 16th Century

The emergence of still life as an independent genre became more pronounced in Northern Europe during the 16th century. Pieter Aertsen and his pupil Joachim Beuckelaer reduced the prominence of religious scenes in the background and placed food, kitchen utensils, and market goods in the foreground, thus paving the way for the autonomy of the genre. In these works, the abundance of material goods and the details of everyday life were, for the first time, made the central subject of painting. Often, a moral contrast was established in such compositions: the worldly abundance in the foreground was juxtaposed with the religious scene in the background, offering the viewer a didactic message.

At the same time in Italy, Caravaggio’s Basket of Fruit (1596) is regarded as one of the earliest examples in Western art where still life acquired an identity as an independent genre. This work demonstrated that everyday objects could be depicted through direct observation, with dramatic lighting and striking realism. The examples that emerged in the 16th century laid the groundwork for the flourishing still life tradition of 17th-century Dutch and Flemish painting.

^{Caravaggio Fruit Basket (flickr)}

The 17th Century: The Dutch and Flemish Golden Age

The most brilliant period of the still life genre took place in the 17th century in the Netherlands and Flanders. After the Reformation, the decline in commissions for religious paintings allowed artists to turn their attention to everyday objects. Among the paintings commissioned by the wealthy bourgeoisie to decorate their homes, still life stood out for its variety and technical mastery. During this period, several subgenres developed:

• Vanitas still lifes: Symbols such as skulls, hourglasses, wilted flowers, extinguished candles, and soap bubbles conveyed reflections on death and the transience of life. David Bailly’s Vanitas (1651) is one of the most well-known examples of this approach.

• Flower paintings: Ambrosius Bosschaert, Jan Brueghel, and Rachel Ruysch combined botanical curiosity with aesthetic refinement, depicting flowers in highly detailed compositions. These works reflected both scientific knowledge of nature and the culture of collecting.

^{Flowers on a Marble Tabletop, Rachel Ruysch (rawpixel)}

• Breakfast and banquet scenes: Pieter Claesz and Willem Claesz Heda meticulously represented opulent tables with silver plates, crystal goblets, and delicacies. While these paintings displayed visual splendor, they also implied the fleeting nature of material pleasures.

• Trompe-l’œil still lifes: Cornelis Gysbrechts and Samuel van Hoogstraeten employed illusionistic techniques to deceive the viewer. In their paintings, scraps of paper, sealed letters, or half-open cupboard doors were rendered as if they were real.

^{Studio Wall and Vanitas, Cornelis Gysbrechts (rawpixel)}

The 18th Century: French Approaches

In 18th-century France, still life was approached with a different aesthetic sensibility. Instead of the opulent banquet scenes and symbol-laden vanitas imagery of Dutch and Flemish examples, artists turned to the simple objects of everyday life. The most prominent representative of this shift was Jean-Baptiste-Siméon Chardin. In his paintings, ordinary household items such as copper pots, bread, fruit, and water bottles were depicted within a restrained arrangement. Chardin’s works contributed a new dimension to still life by reflecting a calm and sincere atmosphere, free from ostentation. French still lifes of this period emphasized the modesty of daily life rather than the display of material abundance, thereby opening a new direction in the development of the genre.

The 19th Century

In the 19th century, still life continued to be regarded as a low-status genre within the hierarchical order of European art academies. Within the academic system, which privileged subjects such as history, mythology, and portraiture, depictions of everyday objects were often considered secondary. Nevertheless, with the artistic transformations of the period, still life regained significance.

Realist painters such as Gustave Courbet and Édouard Manet challenged academic conventions by portraying ordinary objects with straightforward directness. The Impressionists, particularly Claude Monet, Pierre-Auguste Renoir, and Paul Cézanne, used still life as a suitable field to study the shifting effects of light and color. Cézanne’s compositions of apples and bottles, with their reduction of nature to geometric forms, came to be regarded as one of the foundations of modern painting. Thus, in the 19th century, still life became both a genre that questioned its traditionally low status and a source of experimental exploration for modern art.

^{The Basket of Apples, Paul Cézanne (rawpixel)}

The 20th Century and Beyond

In the 20th century, still life became an important field for the experimental tendencies of modern art. The Cubists, especially Pablo Picasso and Georges Braque, deconstructed everyday objects such as bottles, guitars, and glasses, reconstructing them as geometric planes. This approach transformed still life from a merely representational genre into a vehicle for abstraction and formal analysis.

Surrealist painters such as Salvador Dalí and René Magritte disrupted the conventional meanings of objects by bringing them together in unexpected contexts. In this way, still life became a medium for subconscious and dreamlike imagery. In the mid-20th century, the American Pop Art movement transformed the ordinary objects of consumer culture into an artistic language; Andy Warhol’s works with mass-produced items are the most well-known examples of this transformation.

Today, still life is both sustained through classical techniques and reinterpreted through photography, digital media, and conceptual art. Contemporary artists such as Damien Hirst have updated the traditional vanitas theme by employing animal specimens, medical instruments, and readymade objects to question the relationships between life, death, and consumption.

Technical and Compositional Features

Still life has long served as a genre through which painters could demonstrate their technical skills, thanks to the static arrangement of objects. The detailed depiction of light, shadow, and surface textures played a central role. Reflections in crystal glass, the gleam of metal vessels, the texture of bread crust, or the delicacy of flower petals drew the viewer’s attention to both the artist’s powers of observation and the illusionistic quality of the painting.

In terms of composition, distinct conventions developed during the 17th century. Dutch and Flemish painters often arranged objects placed on a table from a low vantage point, set against a dark background—a method that emphasized the sculptural weight of the objects. By contrast, Chardin’s French still lifes were marked by simpler, more symmetrical, and tranquil arrangements. After the late 18th century, compositions made freer use of perspective, increased spacing between objects, and adopted lighter color tones.

In trompe-l’œil still lifes, composition was carefully designed to maximize the illusion. Protruding scraps of paper, embossed seals, or letters painted together with their shadows served as elements that challenged the viewer’s perception of reality. In the 19th and 20th centuries, Cézanne’s geometric simplifications and the fragmented structures of the Cubists carried still life into a radically new understanding of composition.