Theory of Knowledge in Islamic Civilization

In Islamic civilization, the theory of knowledge is a fundamental philosophical discipline that focuses on the possibility, source, scope, limits, and criteria of true knowledge. Throughout human history, the nature of knowledge, how it is acquired, and its reliability have been examined within different intellectual traditions and civilizations. In Islamic kalam, however, the theory of knowledge came to be recognized as an independent field of study from the fourth century AH onward, and was thoroughly explored by kalam scholars. This discipline encompasses a broad spectrum, ranging from the definition of knowledge to its types, methods of acquisition, and value. The examination of knowledge sources such as the senses, reason, testimony (narration), and experience reveals both the rational and transmitted dimensions of knowledge. Islamic kalam scholars addressed the problem of the certainty of knowledge by countering skepticism and particularly emphasized the existence of necessary knowledge.

The Theory of Knowledge in Islamic Kalam

In Islamic kalam, the theory of knowledge is shaped around fundamental issues such as the possibility, definition, sources, types, scope, and value of knowledge. Kalam scholars have presented diverse approaches regarding the nature of knowledge and how it is acquired.

Definition and Possibility of Knowledge

There are various views on the definition of knowledge in Islamic kalam. According to Abu Mansur al-Baghdadi, knowledge (‘ilm) is the direct apprehension of the true nature of the known thing. He criticizes those who define knowledge as a state or attribute of the soul or as the soul’s possession of something. Baghdadi argues that knowledge is neither an agent nor an object, but rather a quality. From the Mu‘tazilite perspective, Jubba’i defines knowledge as “the apprehension of the thing as it is,” while the Ash‘arites regard it as “a quality that necessitates the act of the created being.” The possibility of knowledge has been a major point of debate among kalam scholars. Generally, Islamic kalam scholars accept that knowledge is both possible and necessary. The possibility of knowledge is also linked to the question of whether the human soul possesses a structure capable of apprehending the true nature of things. If the human being were merely a physical entity, it would be difficult to grasp the essence of constantly changing and transitory phenomena or metaphysical realities.

Skepticism is another significant issue addressed by kalam scholars concerning the possibility of knowledge. Skepticism is an approach that denies or questions the attainability of knowledge. Early skeptics such as Pyrrho argued that certain knowledge cannot be obtained. In Islamic thought, sophists claimed the impossibility of absolute knowledge. Kalam scholars opposed skepticism by demonstrating the existence of necessary knowledge. Necessary knowledge refers to knowledge acquired spontaneously, without requiring inference or reasoning. Examples include sensory perceptions (sight, hearing, etc.), self-evident truths (such as the whole being greater than its part), and knowledge derived from mutawatir reports (information transmitted by such a large number of people that collusion in falsehood is rationally impossible). It has been noted that skepticism tends not toward the pursuit of truth but rather toward the rejection of knowledge itself.

Types and Sources of Knowledge

In Islamic kalam, knowledge is classified into various types and is said to originate from different sources.

Primordial and Created Knowledge: Baghdadi distinguishes knowledge into primordial (eternal) and created (acquired). God’s knowledge is primordial, whereas the knowledge of creatures is created.

Necessary Knowledge: Necessary knowledge is knowledge acquired spontaneously, without the need for reasoning or inference. Examples include sensory perceptions (seeing, hearing, etc.), self-evident truths (such as the whole being greater than its part), and mutawatir reports (certain knowledge derived from the unanimous testimony of a large number of people). Baghdadi identifies the sound structure of the soul and its rational capacity as the source of necessary knowledge.

Acquired Knowledge: Acquired knowledge is knowledge obtained through reasoning (nazar) and inference. This type of knowledge is gained through effort and investigation. Reason, transmission (Qur’an, Sunnah, consensus, analogy), the senses, and experience are the primary sources of acquired knowledge.

Senses: The senses of sight, hearing, taste, smell, and touch constitute the first stage of acquiring knowledge about the external world. However, kalam scholars have examined the limitations and potential for deception inherent in the senses.

Testimony (Nakil): Testimony is knowledge received from another person. Based on the number of transmitters, testimony is divided into three categories: mutawatir, mashhur (mustafid), and ahad. A mutawatir report is one transmitted by a group so large that collusion in falsehood is rationally impossible; it constitutes certain knowledge (‘ilm-i zaruri). An ahad report is transmitted by a single individual or a small number of people; it does not yield certain knowledge but may produce a dominant probability (zann-i galib).

Reason (Nazar): Reason is a source of knowledge that processes sensory data, performs logical deductions, and arrives at universal truths. According to kalam scholars, reason plays a crucial role in acquiring knowledge, particularly in metaphysical matters and foundational beliefs such as the existence and oneness of God.

Experience: Experience refers to knowledge gained through personal observation and experimentation. It is a source of knowledge resulting from the combined operation of the senses and reason.

Revelation/Inspiration: In Islamic thought, revelation is knowledge sent by God to the prophets and is regarded as the most certain and reliable source of knowledge. Some Sufis have also regarded inspiration as a source of knowledge. However, most kalam scholars do not consider inspiration a source of certain knowledge.

Baghdadi emphasizes the certainty of necessary knowledge and asserts that acquired knowledge must be supported by reasoning and evidence. According to him, religious obligation (taklif) is related to acquired knowledge. Our knowledge of God is acquired knowledge. For a religious obligation to be valid, the individual must possess knowledge of the obligation. However, knowledge alone is not sufficient for obligation; obligation arises from God’s command and divine will. In the absence of obligation, no reward or punishment is assigned to a person for their good or evil actions.

Scope and Value of Knowledge

In Islamic kalam, the scope and value of knowledge are examined within the context of the relationships among different types of knowledge, the nature of knowledge in relation to the Creator and creation, the superiority of knowledge, and its connection to obligation.

Knowledge of Knowledge Types: Necessary knowledge can be known through acquired means, and acquired knowledge can become necessary. For example, sensory perception (seeing), which is necessary knowledge, can lead to new acquired knowledge through the examination of an object. Similarly, a person who learns a subject through acquired means may, over time, come to regard certain aspects of that knowledge as necessary.

Knowledge from the Perspective of the Creator and the Created: God’s knowledge differs fundamentally from the knowledge of created beings. God’s knowledge is not dependent on causality; He knows everything directly and completely. The knowledge of creatures, however, is limited and can only grasp what God wills. God’s knowledge is perfect and infinite.

Knowledge and Superiority (Tefâdül): There exists a hierarchy of superiority among knowledge sources and types. Knowledge acquired through the senses is the most basic level. Acquired knowledge, supported by reasoning and evidence, is more comprehensive than sensory knowledge. Reason and transmission (revelation) are regarded as the highest sources of knowledge. Revelation, being certain and infallible, holds a higher status than reason. Nevertheless, reason is an indispensable tool for understanding and interpreting revelation.

Knowledge and Obligation (Taklif): Obligation refers to the religious and moral responsibilities imposed by God upon human beings. For an obligation to be valid, the individual must possess knowledge of the obligation. However, knowledge is not the sole condition for obligation; obligation arises from God’s command and is a consequence of divine will. Possessing knowledge is a prerequisite for fulfilling one’s responsibilities. For instance, the acquired knowledge of God’s existence and oneness forms the foundation of faith and worship. In the absence of obligation, no reward or punishment is assigned to a person for their actions.

Knowledge and Destiny: The relationship between knowledge and destiny is also a significant topic of debate in Islamic kalam. God’s knowledge encompasses all future events and human actions. However, this does not negate human free will. According to kalam scholars, God’s knowledge is knowledge of things as they will be; this does not necessitate that things must occur in that way. Thus, God’s knowledge does not determine destiny but rather encompasses it.

Important Figures and Approaches

Many scholars have made significant contributions to the theory of knowledge in Islamic kalam and have represented the views of different schools.

The Theory of Knowledge in al-Taftażānī

Al-Taftażānī (d. 792/1390) was a prominent kalam scholar who lived during a period of intense interaction between philosophy and kalam in Islamic thought. His approach to the problem of knowledge is often analyzed in comparison with the views of the Ash‘arite and Maturidite schools. Taftażānī sought to integrate the methodology of philosophy into the kalam system. He accepted the senses, reason, and testimony as means of acquiring knowledge and placed particular emphasis on reasoning (nazar) and inference. According to him, the path to truth lies in deriving conclusions from premises through the method of analogy. Taftażānī opposed skepticism and defended the existence of necessary knowledge. Issues such as knowledge as an attribute of God and the limitations of human knowledge are also addressed in his works.

The Theory of Knowledge of Abu Mansur Abdulkāhir al-Baghdādī

Abu Mansur Abdulkāhir al-Baghdādī (d. 429/1037) was a key figure in the systematization of the Ash‘arite school of kalam. His life, intellectual personality, writings, and theological views, particularly his contributions to the theory of knowledge, are of primary importance. In his work “Usūl al-Dīn,” Baghdādī devoted extensive attention to the theory of knowledge. He defines knowledge as “the direct apprehension of the true nature of the known thing.” He distinguishes knowledge into primordial (eternal) and created (acquired), asserting that God’s knowledge is primordial while the knowledge of creatures is created. He divides knowledge sources into necessary and acquired. He identifies the senses, self-evident truths, and mutawatir reports as sources of necessary knowledge, and defines acquired knowledge as knowledge obtained through reasoning and inference. Baghdādī also discusses the relationship between obligation and knowledge, emphasizing that for obligation to be valid, the individual must possess knowledge. He further examines the differences in value among types of knowledge.

Hüseyin Atay’s Theory of Knowledge (The Possibility of Knowledge)

Hüseyin Atay asserts that the capacity to acquire knowledge is a fundamental characteristic distinguishing humans from other living beings. According to him, doubt is the beginning of knowledge and inquiry. The skeptical approach can serve as a motivational force in the pursuit of true knowledge. Atay draws attention to the relationship between belief and knowledge, emphasizing that knowledge is a crucial instrument in humanity’s search for answers to questions about existence and creation.