Types of Learning

Types of Learning refer to conceptual classifications based on how individuals acquire knowledge, skills, attitudes, and values. In educational literature, learning processes are generally categorized into three main types: formal, nonformal, and informal. This distinction is based on criteria such as the degree of planning, relationship with institutional structures, level of programmatic design, evaluation mechanisms, and certification features.^【1】

Historical Development

The distinction between formal, nonformal, and informal learning began to be discussed especially in the second half of the 20th century within the context of accessibility, inequality, and development policies in education systems. In the 1960s and 1970s, assessments that formal education systems alone could not adequately respond to societal needs prompted the conceptualization of alternative learning pathways.

In this context, the work of Coombs and Ahmed highlighted the role of nonformal education in development processes, underscoring the importance of organized learning activities occurring outside the formal system.^【2】 This approach contributed to the development of a more inclusive perspective in education.

From the 1990s onward, globalization, the information economy, and transformations in labor markets led to the understanding of learning as a process extending across all stages of life. The European Commission’s lifelong learning policies ^【3】 and OECD’s work on recognizing nonformal and informal learning ^【4】 prompted a renewed policy-level evaluation of learning types. During this period, learning ceased to be viewed merely as an activity confined to school years and was redefined as a lifelong developmental process of the individual; formal, nonformal, and informal learning began to be addressed within a holistic framework.

Comparative Analysis

The distinctions among learning types are systematically analyzed through criteria such as institutional structure, degree of programmatic design, measurement and evaluation mechanisms, and intended outcomes. This comparison reveals that learning is not merely a spatial issue but also a matter of design, authority, and control.

The following table presents the structural differences among these three main categories within an analytical framework:

This comparative perspective confirms that formal learning serves the function of social standardization and legal legitimacy; nonformal learning addresses current skill gaps and fosters flexibility; and informal learning represents the processes through which individuals make sense of the world and accumulate tacit knowledge. In modern educational paradigms, these types are not mutually exclusive categories but rather integrated components of a holistic, spiral-shaped system.

Formal Learning

Formal learning is a structured learning process conducted within official educational institutions according to established curricula, programs, and standards. It typically involves age-based progression, systematic assessment, and certification.

Key characteristics of formal learning include:

• Aligned with national or institutional curricula.
• Has defined learning outcomes and objectives.
• Assessment is systematic.
• Concludes with a diploma or certificate.
• Teacher-centered or structured learning design.

Schools, universities, and vocational training institutions are typical environments for formal learning. This type of learning plays a crucial role in social standardization and professional competency.

Nonformal Learning

Nonformal learning encompasses planned learning activities conducted outside the formal education system but guided by specific goals and objectives. According to Coombs and Ahmed, nonformal education refers to organized and intentional learning activities conducted outside the formal system.^【5】

Key characteristics of nonformal learning include:

• Planned but less rigid than formal systems.
• Has specific learning objectives.
• Uses flexible content and methods.
• Participation may be voluntary.
• May include certification but it is not mandatory.

Adult education programs, courses, workshops, science center activities, and summer camps are examples of nonformal learning. This type of learning is particularly important for its ability to respond flexibly to individual interests and societal needs.

Informal Learning

Informal learning refers to learning processes that occur spontaneously in daily life, often without conscious awareness and independently of any formal instructional program. Marsick and Watkins define informal learning as learning that is typically unplanned but emerges through experience.^【6】 These processes may be intentional or occur as incidental learning. Eraut considers the acquisition of tacit knowledge, particularly in professional work, a key dimension of informal learning.^【7】

Characteristics of informal learning:

• Spontaneous
• Unplanned
• No formal assessment system
• No certification
• Based on social interaction and experience

Examples of informal learning include family interactions, peer conversations, media consumption, gaming experiences, and workplace-acquired skills.

Theoretical Foundations

The distinction between formal, nonformal, and informal learning is not merely an organizational classification but also a framework linked to different learning theories.

• Behaviorist approaches support structured instruction and assessment processes, particularly in formal learning.
• Cognitive approaches focus on mental processes in both formal and nonformal settings.
• Constructivist approaches emphasize active learner participation and knowledge construction through experience, providing a strong theoretical foundation for nonformal and informal learning contexts.
• Sociocultural theories (e.g., Vygotsky) argue that learning occurs through social interaction, thereby explaining the significance of informal learning.

In this context, learning types are associated not only with environment or degree of planning but also with epistemological and pedagogical perspectives.

Relationships Among Types

Literature emphasizes that learning types do not have rigid boundaries.^【8】 Activities conducted outside school settings often exhibit both nonformal and informal characteristics.

For example:

• A planned workshop at a science center → Nonformal
• Students’ spontaneous discussions during the same workshop → Informal
• A project-based field study conducted at school → Formal with experiential dimensions

Learning types should be viewed not as sharp categories but as existing along a continuum.

Educational Significance

Formal education systems have long been regarded as the sole legitimate pathway to learning. However, with the development of lifelong learning policies, recognition of nonformal and informal learning has become a priority.

In this context, practices such as:

• Recognizing skills acquired in the workplace
• Documenting competencies gained through volunteer activities
• Making learning in digital environments visible

have prompted a policy-level reevaluation of learning types.

Digital Context

With the advancement of digital technologies, boundaries between learning types have become even more fluid.

• Online courses → Nonformal
• Self-directed learning via YouTube → Informal
• Distance university programs → Formal

This has led to the deterritorialization of learning and the emergence of hybrid learning models.

Out-of-School Context

Out-of-school learning is not a type of learning but rather the context in which learning occurs.

In this context, learning occurring outside school can be:

• Formal (school field trip),
• Nonformal (planned science center workshop),
• Informal (free exploration, spontaneous discussion).

This distinction is particularly important for the theoretical positioning of science centers, museums, and nature-based education practices.

Experiential Learning

Kolb’s experiential learning theory argues that learning occurs through the individual’s process of making sense of their experiences.^【9】 According to this model, learning progresses through a four-stage cycle: concrete experience, reflective observation, abstract conceptualization, and active experimentation. This approach emphasizes that learning is not merely the transmission of information but the transformation of experience.

The experiential learning model provides an explanatory framework for understanding nonformal and informal learning processes. In nonformal settings, learning is often deliberately designed around experience, while in informal learning, experience arises spontaneously and gains meaning through the individual’s reflective process. In formal learning environments, experiential activities (laboratories, fieldwork, project-based learning) are regarded as elements that enhance learning durability.

This classification expresses not only the context in which learning occurs but also the organization of the learning process and its level of social recognition. Formal learning encompasses structured processes tied to the official education system; nonformal learning refers to organized yet flexible learning activities; and informal learning denotes learning experiences that emerge spontaneously within daily life. Today, these three categories are not viewed as mutually exclusive structures but as complementary dimensions of a lifelong learning process.

Future Learning Ecosystems

Future learning ecosystems represent a “hybrid universe” in which boundaries between formal, nonformal, and informal learning domains become entirely permeable, shaped by technological transformation and evolving societal needs. In these ecosystems, learning becomes a continuous process integrated into the individual’s life flow, independent of time and space.

The foundational elements of this transformation are shaped by the following dynamics:

• Artificial Intelligence and Personalized Learning: AI algorithms analyze learners’ cognitive levels, interests, and pace to create “personalized learning pathways.” This shifts education from a mass, standardized model (formal) toward a dynamic structure tailored to individual needs and offering real-time feedback.
• Micro-Credentials and Blockchain-Based Accreditation: Alongside traditional diplomas, specific skills acquired through nonformal and informal means are recorded as “micro-credentials.” Blockchain technology ensures the security and global verifiability of these achievements, transforming out-of-school learning experiences into legitimate data within the formal labor market.
• Augmented and Virtual Reality (AR/VR): Learning environments are freed from physical constraints and transformed into simulation-based immersive experiences. These virtual laboratories, where theoretical knowledge (formal) merges with practical application and experience (informal), place the “learning by doing” model at the center of the ecosystem.
• Learning Analytics and Data-Driven Approaches: Learning analytics collected from individuals’ digital footprints enable proactive identification of development areas and timely interventions. In this context, learning is defined not as an outcome but as a continuous “data stream” and developmental cycle.

Formal, nonformal, and informal learning modes are no longer alternative venues but interconnected components of an integrated ecosystem supporting holistic individual development. Modern educational paradigms compel the integration of knowledge confined within school walls with the dynamism of life and the boundless resources of the digital world. Literature emphasizes that linking an “informal” discovery made in a museum or a “nonformal” skill acquired in a workshop to formal education outcomes constitutes a critical threshold for the democratization and personalization of learning.

Future educational paradigms are expected to fully eliminate sharp boundaries among these learning types and place “hybrid and flexible learning pathways” at the core. Particularly, AI-supported personalized learning processes and the documentation of micro-credentials are initiating an era in which informal experiences are regarded as valuable as formal diplomas. Within the lifelong learning vision, the fundamental criterion is no longer where learning occurs but how acquired competencies are transformed into the individual’s problem-solving capacity and social well-being.