Sociology of Crime

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Sociology of Crime is an interdisciplinary field of study that focuses on understanding the social and cultural origins of crime and criminal behavior, rather than individual biological or psychological traits, as well as the role of punishment systems within social structures. Sociology of crime does not define crime merely as a violation of criminal law but as a “deviation” from social norms, value judgments, and cultural frameworks. This discipline examines how interpersonal interactions, social inequalities, poverty, and cultural factors shape the phenomenon of crime

Crime is not a fixed or universal category; it is socially constructed. Which behaviors are classified as criminal is determined by a society’s norms, values, and power relations.^【1】

In modern societies, definitions of crime are shaped not only by individual actions but also by how social order is intended to be established. Therefore, crime is not merely a norm violation; it is also a mechanism that reproduces social order.^【2】

The emergence of crime is largely related to social structure. Factors such as economic inequalities, poverty, unemployment, education level, and family structure play a decisive role in the formation of criminal behavior. Weak family bonds, low levels of education, and criminogenic social environments increase the likelihood of individuals developing criminal behavior.^【3】 In this context, crime should be understood as a consequence of social conditions rather than individual choices.

The scientific study of crime has evolved around different schools throughout history:

• Classical School: Emerging in the 18th century under the leadership of thinkers such as Cesare Beccaria and Jeremy Bentham, this school is grounded in the rationalist philosophy of the Enlightenment. It argues that humans are rational beings endowed with free will, that their actions are based on calculations of pleasure and pain, and that punishment must be proportional to the crime and deterrent in nature.^【4】
• Positivist School: Founded in late 19th-century Italy by thinkers such as Cesare Lombroso, Enrico Ferri, and Raffaele Garofalo, the positivists rejected the notion of free will and argued that crime is the result of biological, psychological, and social factors. Lombroso grounded crime in physical characteristics, framing it as an evolutionary anomaly he termed the “born criminal” (atavism);^【5】 Ferri explained crime through the “law of criminal saturation,” viewing it as a combination of anthropological and social factors such as climate, race, religion, and economy.
• Chicago School (Social Ecology): Emerging in the 1920s in the United States, this school, represented by Park, Burgess, Shaw, and McKay, examined the effects of intense urban migration, industrialization, and rapid social change. It analyzed crime within the context of physical and social environments, arguing that crime stems not from individual pathologies but from the weakening of cultural and social ties in specific urban decay zones, introducing the concept of “social disorganization.”

Anthony Giddens defines deviance as a broad category encompassing behaviors that violate social norms, while crime represents the legal sanctioning of such behaviors.^【6】

Within this framework, all crime involves deviance, but not all deviant behavior constitutes crime. This distinction is crucial for understanding the formation of social norms and mechanisms of social control.

Modernization is one of the central areas of debate in the sociology of crime. Urbanization, individualization, and the erosion of traditional values are among the key dynamics influencing crime rates.

In particular, in developing societies, the weakening of social capital and the decline of social control contribute to rising crime rates. Moreover, rural-to-urban migration generates social disorganization, leading to the concentration of crime in specific areas.^【7】

Crime is a multidimensional phenomenon resulting from the interaction of biological, psychological, and sociological factors. Consequently, theories explaining its causes have been developed across different levels, ranging from individual traits to social structures.

• Social structure theories explain crime within the framework of social conditions, inequalities, and structural strains. According to Émile Durkheim, crime is a normal and functional phenomenon present in all societies; when social norms weaken, “anomie” emerges.^【9】 Robert K. Merton expanded this approach by arguing that the mismatch between cultural goals and the legitimate means to achieve them creates strain in individuals, leading to deviant behaviors such as crime.^【10】 In this context, poverty, unemployment, and unequal access to opportunities are key socio-economic determinants of criminal behavior.
• The social disorganization approach asserts that crime rates increase in areas characterized by rapid urbanization, migration, and concentrated poverty, where social bonds weaken. The breakdown of neighborhood ties and cultural conflicts lead to the loss of function of established norms.^【11】
• Subculture theories, developed by Albert Cohen and Walter B. Miller, argue that lower-class youth, unable to achieve dominant societal values, experience status frustration and develop alternative value systems that legitimize criminal behavior..^【12】

• Social process theories assert that crime is learned and sustained through an individual’s social interactions. According to Edwin Sutherland’s differential association theory, criminal behavior is acquired through close relationships with others. This approach emphasizes that crime is not inherited but the result of a social learning process.^【13】
• Travis Hirschi’s control theory states that the weakening of bonds to society—through family, school, and social institutions—increases the likelihood of criminal behavior. Family disintegration, migration, individualization, and the erosion of social control mechanisms are seen as accelerating factors in this process.^【14】
• Labeling theory argues that crime is socially constructed. According to Howard Becker and Edwin Lemert, when an individual is labeled as “criminal” by society, they internalize this identity and develop secondary deviance.^【15】 Bruce Link emphasizes that the expectation of stigmatization leads individuals to withdraw from social life.

• Conflict and critical approaches analyze crime in the context of social inequalities and power relations. Marxist theory argues that crime is a consequence of class inequalities generated by the capitalist system and contends that law is shaped to protect the interests of dominant classes. In this framework, crime is not merely an individual act but a reflection of social power relations.
• Feminist criminology critiques traditional crime theories for centering male experiences and explains female criminality in terms of gender inequality, patriarchal oppression, and frequent exposure to violence.

• Explanations for crime are not limited to the social level. Biological and psychological approaches interpret criminal behavior through individual traits.
• Biological approaches link criminal behavior to genetic predispositions, neurological disorders, and hormone levels. Early studies by Cesare Lombroso attributed criminality to innate physical characteristics; William Sheldon associated body types with criminal tendencies. These approaches have been criticized for neglecting environmental factors and have been largely replaced by more holistic biological explanations.
• Psychological approaches accept that crime is related to an individual’s mental structure and personality traits. According to Sigmund Freud, disruptions in the balance between the id, ego, and superego can lead to criminal behavior. Psychopathic personality traits, lack of empathy, cognitive development issues, and substance dependence are among the primary psychological factors associated with criminal conduct.

The sociology of punishment examines the evolution of penal practices and their function as mechanisms of social control. In his work Discipline and Punish, Michel Foucault analyzes the historical transformation of punishment. In classical times, public and horrific bodily punishments—tortures symbolizing the monarch’s revenge—were replaced by modern prisons based on surveillance and discipline. According to Foucault, the modern prison (and its Panopticon architecture) is not merely a tool for punishing crime but a micro-power technology designed to normalize society and render bodies obedient and productive. Moreover, far from eliminating crime, the prison has been remarkably successful in producing a closed class of “delinquency,” easily monitored, categorized, and directed by authorities.^【16】

The stigmatizing and exclusionary responses of post-incarceration society also constitute a serious social problem. Criminal records exclude individuals from the labor market, push them into poverty, sever ties with family and social networks, and indirectly or directly compel them toward further illegal activities, leading to recidivism.

As a developing country, Türkiye experiences rising crime rates due to macro-sociological factors such as rural-to-urban migration, uncontrolled urbanization, income inequality, unemployment, and transformations in the traditional family structure (increasing divorce rates and weakening social control). In this context, Türkiye ranks among the countries with the highest prison population density in the Council of Europe member states.

The prison population in Türkiye has increased dramatically over the past two decades. The number of detainees and convicts, which stood at approximately 50,000 at the beginning of the 2000s, surpassed 300,000 in the 2020s. Statistically, the incarceration rate per 100,000 people was 172 in 2011, rose to 351 in 2019, and reached a total prison population of 314,502 as of March 2022.^【17】 When examining the gender distribution of the prison population, the link between crime and social gender becomes evident: approximately 96% of the population are men and 4% are women.

Analyzing the nature of crimes committed in Türkiye reveals that property crimes and violent acts against individuals are the most prevalent. As of the end of 2023, the distribution of convictions among prisoners is as follows:

• Property Crimes: Theft (272,346 cases) and violation of residential inviolability are the most common categories.
• Crimes Against the Person: Intentional injury, threats, and robbery cases dominate numerically.
• Public Health and Order: Crimes related to the production, trade, and use of narcotics or stimulants, as well as violations of the Enforcement and Bankruptcy Law, represent a significant volume.

The geographical clustering of crime follows a pattern parallel to rapid urbanization and population density. The ten provinces with the highest crime rates are, in order: Istanbul, Ankara, İzmir, Antalya, Bursa, Konya, Adana, Mersin, Gaziantep, and Kocaeli. These centers are areas characterized by high levels of anonymity and weak social capital due to urban tensions.

The phenomenon of “children drawn into crime,” which directly affects the future of society, has reached a critical level with a 20.5 percent increase in recent years. According to 2022 data, the majority of children brought to security units are involved in cases of injury (37.8 percent) and theft (25.2 percent).^【18】

There is a statistical correlation between education level and type of crime. A significant proportion of theft offenders are found to be illiterate or to have completed only primary education. In contrast, individuals convicted of intentional homicide, narcotics trafficking, and sexual offenses show higher rates of high school or higher education graduates. This indicates that crime is not only linked to absolute poverty but also to complex deficiencies in cultural and social capital.