Agricultural Mechanization

Agricultural mechanization is a scientific discipline encompassing all activities related to the design, manufacture, development, marketing, dissemination, training, selection, operation, use, and maintenance of energy sources and mechanical equipment used for the improvement of agricultural land, the execution of all types of agricultural production, and the evaluation of products as a requirement of advanced production technologies. In simple terms, mechanization, meaning the adoption of machinery, in agriculture refers to meeting the necessary energy and power requirements of farms through motorization (use of engine power) and electrification (use of electrical energy).

Agricultural mechanization is recognized as a production technology and serves as a tool that enables the effective and economic implementation of other agricultural technologies such as soil and water conservation, irrigation, fertilization, pest control, and biotechnology. Historically, agricultural activities that began with human muscle power evolved to the use of animal power, then transitioned to machine use with the Industrial Revolution and the invention of internal combustion engines, and today exhibit further development by incorporating advanced technologies such as sophisticated sensors, unmanned aerial vehicles (drones), computerized systems, and autonomous tractors.

Historical Development

The historical development of agricultural mechanization parallels humanity’s transition to settled life. The earliest developments began with the use of sticks to bury stored seeds into the soil, followed by simple tools drawn by domesticated animals. The most primitive forms of the plow are believed to have originated in Mesopotamia.

With the Industrial Revolution, large steam-powered tractors were developed, but widespread adoption occurred only after the discovery of internal combustion engines. The proliferation of tractors led to the development of new agricultural implements and machines designed to work alongside them. The addition of power take-off shafts to tractors in 1925 and the introduction of hydraulic suspension systems in 1937 marked significant milestones by enabling both stationary and mobile machines to draw power directly from the tractor engine and achieve more effective control.

Historical Development in Türkiye

In the period before the Republic, agricultural production in Türkiye relied heavily on human and animal power. The energy revolution experienced in Europe and the United States in the late 19th century had little noticeable impact on Turkish agriculture, and mechanization efforts remained limited. In the final years of the First World War, a number of tractors, threshers, and sickle machines were imported from Germany and Austria to address declining production levels.

During the Republican era, various measures were taken to promote the use of machinery in agriculture, and in 1924, 221 tractors were imported. However, global factors such as the Second World War slowed these efforts. The Turkish Agricultural Equipment Institution, established in 1944, contributed to the advancement of mechanization by providing machinery and maintenance services to farmers. The Marshall Plan in 1949 led to an increase in the number of tractors, rising from 11,729 in 1949 to 31,413 in 1952. Domestic production of combine harvesters began in Türkiye in 1968, but local manufacturing ceased after 1988 due to unplanned imports. Today, Türkiye has approximately 1,000 manufacturers and importers of agricultural machinery, with 14 firms operating in the tractor sector.

Purposes, Benefits, and Drawbacks of Agricultural Mechanization

Purposes and Benefits

The main purposes and benefits of agricultural mechanization practices can be summarized as follows:

• Efficiency and Increased Production: Completing production operations in the most suitable time frame to prevent losses due to delays and enabling higher yields per unit area.

• Adoption of New Technologies: Facilitating the application of new technological innovations in production and enhancing their effectiveness and economic viability.

• Cost and Labor Optimization: Reducing production costs, eliminating labor shortages, and improving the productivity of agricultural workers.

• Improved Working Conditions: Making working conditions in rural areas more comfortable, attractive, and safe.

• Reduced Dependence on Nature: Minimizing reliance on natural conditions in production to obtain higher quality products.

• Opening New Land for Agriculture: Using machine power to carry out agricultural operations that cannot be achieved with human or animal power and enabling the cultivation of previously unused land.

Drawbacks

When agricultural mechanization is implemented inappropriately or without planning, it can lead to several drawbacks. These negative effects include:

• High Cost Burden: Mechanization is a high-cost input. If improperly selected or applied, it can negatively affect the profitability of farm operations.

• Rural Unemployment: Excessive mechanization can cause unemployment in rural areas and trigger migration to industrial centers. In developing countries, targeted approaches known as selective mechanization have been developed to increase production without reducing labor per unit area.

• Economic Imbalance: Unplanned mechanization may disrupt the balance between agricultural and industrial sectors to the detriment of agriculture.

• Energy Dependence and Foreign Exchange Loss: Since mechanization equipment primarily operates on petroleum energy, unplanned mechanization can negatively affect the country’s overall energy balance. Additionally, purchasing tractors or machinery from foreign countries can lead to foreign exchange outflows.

Agricultural Mechanization Management

In an agricultural enterprise, increased profitability depends on selecting tractors and machinery that match operational needs and using them economically. Mechanization costs can constitute the largest expense component after land and building costs.

Machinery Costs

Total costs associated with an agricultural machine are analyzed under two main categories: “fixed costs” and “variable costs.”

• Fixed Costs: Costs that are time-dependent and independent of the amount of machine use. This category includes depreciation (loss of value over time), interest on capital invested, taxes, insurance, and protection (storage) costs.

• Variable Costs: Costs that vary proportionally with the operating hours of the machine. These include repair and maintenance, fuel and lubricants, and labor expenses.

• Time-Related Costs: The economic value of losses in product quality and quantity resulting from the failure to carry out critical agricultural operations such as sowing and harvesting at optimal times.

Machinery Acquisition Methods

Due to the high cost of mechanization investments, the method of acquiring machinery is of critical importance. Common methods in Türkiye include:

• Individual Machine Use: The farm purchases machinery using its own capital or credit. This is often cost-effective for long-term use when machine capacity is fully utilized during the production season.

• Shared Machine Use: Machinery is used by multiple farms. This model relieves producers from high fixed cost burdens and facilitates access to new technologies. Common shared-use models in Türkiye include neighborly cooperation, contracting (common for expensive machinery such as combine harvesters and cotton pickers), and cooperatives as forms of group ownership.

Determining the Level of Application: Indicators

Standard indicators are used to determine and compare the level of agricultural mechanization in a region or country. Since tractors serve as the primary power source, indicators are generally based on tractor availability. The most commonly used criteria are:

• Tractor Power per Unit Cultivated Area (kW/ha): Calculated by dividing the total tractor power in a region by the total cultivated agricultural area. This is considered the most accurate indicator for assessing mechanization levels.

• Number of Tractors per 1,000 Hectares of Cultivated Area (tractors/1000 ha): Represents the number of tractors per 1,000 hectares of cultivated land.

• Cultivated Area per Tractor (ha/tractor): Found by dividing the total cultivated area by the total number of tractors. As this value decreases, the level of mechanization is considered to increase.

• Number of Implements/Equipment per Tractor (equipment/tractor): Calculated by dividing the total number of agricultural implements and machines on a farm by the total number of tractors.

Current Situation in the World and in Türkiye

Global Situation

The global agricultural machinery sector is evolving around food quality, efficiency, and technology use. According to 2008 data, the global market for agricultural machinery and tractors reached 67 billion Euros. In 2007, Germany led global tractor and equipment exports, followed by the United States (%15), Italy (%10), and France (%7). It is estimated that approximately 27.7 million tractors are in use worldwide, with 41% in Europe, 26% in the Americas, and 29.5% in Asia.

Situation in Türkiye

Overview and Comparison with the European Union

In Türkiye, agricultural mechanization has shown quantitative growth in terms of both tractor and equipment availability. However, structural issues and regional disparities persist. Compared with the European Union (EU), Türkiye’s mechanization indicators fall below EU averages. According to 2010 data, some key indicators are as follows:

• Tractor Power per Unit Area: Türkiye 1.68 kW/ha; EU 6 kW/ha.

• Number of Tractors per 1,000 Hectares: Türkiye 40 tractors/1000 ha; EU 89 tractors/1000 ha.

• Number of Equipment per Tractor: Türkiye 5.2 units/tractor; EU 10 units/tractor.

• Average Tractor Power: Türkiye 60 HP; EU 100 HP.

One of the main reasons for these differences is the small and fragmented structure of agricultural holdings in Türkiye. The average farm size in Türkiye is 6 hectares, compared to 15.8 hectares in the EU.

Tractor and Combine Harvester Availability

The number of tractors in Türkiye increased from 654,636 in 1988 to 1,332,139 in 2018. However, the average age of the tractor fleet is 24 years, and a significant portion (less than 33%) is considered economically usable, having reached the end of its economic life. Tractors that have reached the end of their economic life consume approximately 30% more fuel and emit higher levels of pollutants compared to newer models. According to 2018 data, 39.3% of two-axle tractors fall within the 35–50 HP range, and 40.3% fall within the 51–70 HP range.

The number of combine harvesters increased from 12,578 in 2000 to 17,266 in 2018. However, as of 2018, 52.9% of the combine harvester fleet is over 10 years old, and 29.9% is over 20 years old. Harvesting with these aging machines results in approximately 8% grain loss, causing significant economic damage.

Agricultural Machinery Industry, Foreign Trade, and Regional Disparities

In Türkiye, as of 2017, 1,161 manufacturing firms operate in the agricultural machinery sector. While the number of traditional tools such as animal-drawn plows and seeders has declined, the number of modern equipment such as fruit harvesters and motorized reapers has increased. Analysis of foreign trade data shows that Türkiye has become a net exporter of agricultural mechanization equipment. In 2018, equipment exports amounted to 406.4 million US dollars, while imports reached 298.2 million US dollars. The largest share of exports, at 32%, consists of soil preparation, sowing, fertilization, and crop care equipment; the largest share of imports, at 54.5%, is for harvesting and threshing equipment.

The level of agricultural mechanization in Türkiye varies significantly between regions and provinces. Generally, mechanization levels are lower in dryland farming areas and mountainous regions compared to irrigated areas. According to 2004 data, Düzce had the highest mechanization level at 10.01 kW/ha, while Trabzon had the lowest at 0.09 kW/ha.

Ergonomics and Occupational Safety in Agricultural Mechanization

Agricultural mechanization involves human-machine-environment interactions, which have significant implications for occupational safety and health. Ergonomics as a science aims to study these interactions and establish healthy and safe working conditions.

Ergonomic Factors and Health Issues

Users of agricultural machinery are exposed to various ergonomic risk factors during work. These factors include:

• Vibration: The use of machines such as tractors and combine harvesters causes significant vibration to operators. This leads particularly to spinal and gastrointestinal disorders. Research shows that spinal deformities among tractor drivers occur at younger ages and higher rates than in other occupational groups. This is due to the similarity between the human body’s natural resonance frequency (approximately 4 Hz) and the vibration frequencies of tractors.

• Noise: Noise levels from agricultural machinery typically exceed established health safety limits. Tractor noise levels range between 90–110 dBA. Prolonged exposure to such noise can lead to permanent hearing loss and deafness.

• Toxic Gases and Dust: Exhaust emissions from thermal engines (carbon and nitrogen oxides), chemical pesticides and fertilizers, and gases released from stored green fodder negatively affect human health. These gases and biological dusts can cause respiratory diseases, skin irritations, and eye disorders.

• Layout of Controls and Operating Elements: The placement of control levers, pedals, and indicators on tractors and machines must conform to the anthropometric (body measurements) characteristics of the operator. Poorly designed layouts increase physical fatigue and raise the risk of accidents.

Work Accidents and Preventive Measures

Research shows that work accidents related to agricultural mechanization occur on a significant scale. Accidents most frequently result from tractor rollovers, attempts to clear blockages while machinery is in operation (leading to limb amputations), getting on and off tractors, and transportation accidents involving farm vehicles. Preventive measures such as engineering services (safe designs, protective guards), training, use of personal protective equipment, and workplace discipline are essential to reduce these accidents.