Concept of Culture

The concept of culture is a structure that has maintained its ambiguity for centuries, and scholars have never reached a definitive consensus on its definition. Numerous thinkers have examined and analyzed the concept of culture. These include primarily E.B. Tylor, R. Thurnwald, R.M. MacIver, Ziya Gökalp, and Cemil Meriç.

Definitions of Culture

According to E.B. Tylor, culture is “a complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, morals, customs, and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society.”

According to R. Thurnwald, culture consists of the structure of social relations, mentalities, and values within a human community. Traditions, institutions, and ideas formed through collective living constitute the system called culture. Culture is the way a society lives and evaluates its existence.^【1】

R. M. MacIver defined culture as “the mode of life and thought of the people who constitute a society, the manner in which human nature expresses itself in daily activities, in art and literature, in religion, in joy and amusement.”^【2】

Ziya Gökalp defined culture as the distinctive forms developed internally by different nations within a civilization. Additionally, Gökalp employed the Turkish term “hars” as a native equivalent to culture.

Cemil Meriç likened the concept of culture to vagueness, ambiguity, and transience in Europe. He emphasized that the concept of “irfan” — indigenous to these lands — is a structure far broader than the content of culture. Meriç defined irfan as follows:

“Irfan is a word that embraces all poles of thought. Irfan is the private garden of humanity. It does not divide; it unites. In this garden, hatred falls silent, walls crumble, and disagreements come to an end. Irfan begins with self-knowledge. Self-knowledge is liberation from the slavery of prejudices, falsehoods, and illusions.”^【3】

Although the concept of culture can stand on its own, an undeniable relationship exists between culture and civilization. Neither can be conceived independently of human existence; both depend on the presence of human beings. While some argue that these two terms can be used interchangeably, the majority emphasize their distinct contexts. Ziya Gökalp addressed the concepts of culture and civilization as follows:

“Civilization is the common heritage of multiple nations, because various nations have collectively brought each civilization into being through shared life. For this reason, every civilization is inherently international. However, each civilization takes on unique forms in each nation; these are called hars (culture).”^【4】

Mümtaz Turhan stated that the elements belonging to a nation’s culture and those belonging to its civilization are interwoven.

Erol Güngör defined culture as the manner in which civilization is transmitted to societies. Influenced by Gestalt psychology, Benedict and Frankfort argued that civilization and culture form a unity, and that cultural elements derive their meaning only within the larger whole (civilization).

Professor Dr. Yılmaz Özakpınar, author of the work A Theory of Civilization, developed a theory to clarify the relationship between culture and civilization. Özakpınar first asserted that while every society possesses its own culture, what gives rise to civilization is humanity’s awareness of its own mind as a source of potential. He noted that cultural elements do not arise randomly; they are shaped by societal dynamics — particularly ethics and beliefs. He emphasized that civilization consists of the ethical and belief system that provides the spiritual framework within which cultural elements are formed. In his theory, civilization is understood as the social environment that prepares the conditions for cultural works, enables the realization of their intellectual designs, and constitutes their essential content.

For example, although the Süleymaniye Mosque stands out as a material cultural element, behind it lies a far broader factor that influenced Mimar Sinan’s intellectual conception of the work: an ethical and belief system — that is, civilization. As this example illustrates, culture and civilization are complementary components of one another.