This article was automatically translated from the original Turkish version.
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One of the cultural heritage elements of the common world is the Köroğlu Epic, a heroic epic that has spread across a vast geographical area and remained alive through generations in oral tradition important. This epic has been embraced by Turkic peoples stretching from epic to Central Asia; it has been narrated in many countries including Türkiye, Azerbaijan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan and Kazakhstan like. Even its spread into the narrative circles of non-Turkic-speaking communities such as the Georgians and Bulgarian peoples demonstrates the immense reach of the Köroğlu Epic.
The Köroğlu Epic holds a unique place in the Turkish epic tradition due to its themes of heroism and justice, its poetic narrative style interwoven with the poet-âşık tradition, and its rich symbolic elements such as the horse (Kırat), woman and weapon motifs. The hero of the epic, Köroğlu, is an immortal character who lives in the collective memory of the people as both a warrior who rebels against oppression and a âşık who sings folk songs accompanied by his saz.
The Life of Köroğlu (TRT Avaz)
Various theories have been proposed regarding the origins of the Köroğlu Epic. Many researchers trace its foundations to the Celali rebellions in Anatolia and Azerbaijan at the end of the 16th century. According to this view, the Köroğlu narratives that gained popularity during this period took shape as a reflection of the social unrest and rebellion movements of the time. Indeed, folklorist P. N. Boratav and some historians have noted that the Köroğlu stories acquired a legendary “folk novel” character linked to the Celali rebellions. Moreover, the appearance of Köroğlu and some of his companions’ names in the list of Celali rebels recorded by the 17th-century Armenian historian Arakel is considered evidence of the epic’s association with specific historical figures.
It appears impossible to limit the origins of the Köroğlu Epic to a single historical person or rebellion. Research indicates that viewing Köroğlu merely as a bandit leader is incorrect; rather, the epic is a multi-layered structure built around a folkloric hero.
The formation of the epic bears traces of different historical periods and various cultural layers. On one hand, local historical events have been incorporated into the narrative; on the other, mythological motifs and collective cultural elements have been woven into its structure. For instance, in the Anatolian variants, the name Köroğlu is explained as “son of the blind” (blind son of a blind father), based on the motif of his father’s eyes being blinded. In Central Asian variants, a more archaic and mythological motif emerges: Köroğlu’s birth from a tomb.
Folk Song Related to the Köroğlu Epic's Bolu Variant (TRT Avaz)
The hero’s birth from a tomb signifies that he is reborn from the underworld (from death), demonstrating the epic’s mythic depth. To understand the historical development of the epic, one must also consider its geographical spread. According to some views, the Köroğlu narratives spread from Central Asia to Anatolia, undergoing structural and content-related transformations during this process.
Researchers such as Dursun Yıldırım argue that elements of the epic from Central Asia were carried into Anatolia through the migrations of the Oghuz Turks and then fused with local historical events such as the Celali rebellions to form new forms. The identification of mythic elements even in the Anatolian variants of the epic supports this view.
Details such as the hero possessing a legendary horse named Kırat descended from a horse emerging from the sea or his sword forged from a meteorite falling from the sky link Köroğlu to the mythological heroes of ancient epic traditions. Such elements suggest that one aspect of the epic’s origins lies in Central Asian steppe culture and ancient Turkic epics.
Researchers emphasizing the historical dimension of the epic focus on a possible historical Köroğlu figure who lived in the 16th–17th centuries. According to tradition, a certain âşık-popular hero named Ruşen Ali led Celali groups rebelling against the Bolu Bey. His memory was transformed into an epic by the people and has reached us today. However, such connections have not been definitively established, and the epic’s historical background likely emerged from the merging of several different stories and figures.
The origins of the Köroğlu Epic took shape on a ground where historical reality and mythological imagination are intertwined. The epic likely drew upon the fame of a possible 16th-century rebel leader but acquired a legendary dimension through the workings of collective memory but time. As a result, Köroğlu became a composite epic hero who carries traces of history while also being adorned with universal motifs.
The Köroğlu Epic is regarded as one of the later examples of the Turkish folk epic tradition. Turkish epics are considered the largest and most expansive form of folklore in terms of volume and narrative style. The Köroğlu Epic is an important part of this epic tradition and is classified as a historical-folk epic, distinct from the earliest creation epics additional. In this capacity, the Köroğlu Epic represents a structure that bridges the epic and folk storytelling traditions. In Turkish epic tradition, narratives are generally presented in a mixed verse-prose structure. The narrator (ozan, âşık or public/shaman) recounts the story in prose but expresses the hero’s speech in poetry during critical and emotionally charged moments. These poetic sections are typically sung in meter with the accompaniment of the saz (kopuz), a traditional narrative technique that enhances the listener’s emotional engagement.
The Köroğlu Epic, in accordance with this tradition, has a structure that interweaves prose narration with metrical folk songs. The folk ozans who narrate the epic enrich the story with folk songs that express the hero’s emotions, feats of bravery or suffering while recounting events in prose. Thus, the Köroğlu Epic can be evaluated both as a narrative and as a poetic corpus. Structurally, the Köroğlu Epic is a cycle of epics composed of different sections called “kol.” Rather than a single linear story, it consists of episodic adventures of Köroğlu and his companions. The most important of these sections is the beginning part known as the “Birth of Köroğlu” or “First Kol,” which recounts Köroğlu’s origins, the misfortunes befalling his father and his acquisition of Kırat.
The subsequent kol sections contain Köroğlu’s different adventures, battles, enemies and victories. For example, in the Anatolian variants, episodes such as his struggle against Bolu Bey, Köroğlu’s settlement in Çamlıbel and his emergence as a bandit leader, and Ayvaz’s capture and rescue are well known.
In Central Asian variants, narratives include Köroğlu’s expeditions with his forty heroes, encounters with various khans or the adventures of his son. This multi-kol structure demonstrates how the epic was enriched over centuries through additions by different narrators and how each region contributed its own motifs.
Another factor defining the Köroğlu Epic’s place within the Turkish epic tradition is its performance (narrative) tradition. Since Köroğlu is an ozan-poet hero, the narration of the epic is directly linked to the âşık tradition. Traditional folk âşıks traveled across the lands with their saz, narrating Köroğlu stories, thereby spreading the epic’s fame across vast geographical areas. In eras before print and visual media, folk âşıks shared the joys and sorrows of society through music and words.
The Köroğlu Epic was transmitted orally from generation to generation through these âşıks; âşık gatherings and storytelling sessions in coffeehouses played a major role in its diversification and survival. Today, however, sustaining this tradition has become difficult. The number of folk âşıks who have preserved and continue the tradition has dwindled to fewer than the fingers of one hand; yet the Köroğlu Epic still remains alive in the memories of these few master âşıks. This situation continues the epic’s presence in oral tradition, while also showing that it is now increasingly transmitted to new generations through written sources and academic studies.
The Köroğlu Ballad, sung by Âşık Maksut Feryadi (Âşık Maksut Feryadi)
The Köroğlu Epic can be described as the last great link in the Turkish epic tradition. Since the Dede Korkut Book, the epic/folk tale tradition has seen Köroğlu both preserve ancient motifs and melt the social realities of his time into the epic crucible. Thus, the epic has created a shared cultural common ground in the Turkish world and has become one of the golden links of the epic tradition through its narrative style and the values it embodies.
Thanks to its wide geographical spread, the Köroğlu Epic has diversified into various variants among different Turkic communities. Understanding the relationship and differences among these variants is essential for revealing the epic’s common core and local characteristics. Köroğlu stories are examined in two main groups: Eastern (Central Asian) variants and Western (Anatolian-Caucasian) variants.
Koroglu (Turan Etno Folk), which became a national folk song in Kazakhstan
The West group includes the Türkiye and Azerbaijan narratives and their related ones such as the Balkans (e.g., Bulgarian or Rumeli Turkic tales influenced by Anatolia) and Caucasus (narratives translated into Georgian and Armenian languages).
The East group includes variants narrated especially in Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan and surrounding regions, which later reached distant communities such as Kazakhs, Kyrgyz, Siberians and Tatars.
Azerbaijani-made Koroğlu Film - 1960 (Azərbaycanfilm)
Common Elements: In all variants, the basic skeleton of the Köroğlu Epic remains similar, and the key elements distinguishing it from other epics are preserved. First, the hero Köroğlu (also known as Ruşen Ali, Rövşen, Göroğlu, etc.) is the son of a father whose eyes were blinded due to an unjust ruler’s cruelty. This motif, which gives the epic its name, is critical: “Köroğlu” means “son of the blind” in Turkic languages. Thus, in both Anatolian and Central Asian variants, Köroğlu’s motive for struggle is to avenge the injustice done to his father or ancestor, representing a kind of quest for revenge and justice. The second important common element is Köroğlu’s possession of an extraordinary horse (usually named Kırat). Kırat is Köroğlu’s greatest ally and friend in every episode and often descends from a supernatural lineage. Third, Köroğlu rarely acts alone in most variants; he is accompanied by a group or band of heroes. In Anatolian and Azerbaijan narratives, this group is sometimes called “Köroğlu’s heroes” or “gang,” while in Turkmen and Uzbek variants, the number of companions is specified numerically.
Köroğlu, together with his companions, establishes a headquarters in a central location: Çamlıbel in Anatolia, Çənlibel in Azerbaijan and Çandıbil in Turkmen variants, all referring to a mountain or castle. The similarity of this name is striking; it likely originated from a common source and spread regionally with different pronunciations. The fourth common element is the tyrannical beys, khans or pashas that Köroğlu confronts throughout the epic. In every variant, Köroğlu rebels against a powerful authority figure representing an unjust order: Bolu Bey in Anatolia, Hasan Inn in Azerbaijan and various khans in Turkmenistan. Although these antagonists bear different names, their function as representatives of evil remains the same. In many versions, Köroğlu’s âşık dimension is also a recurring theme. The hero fights not only with sword and lance but also with words and music, gaining fame through his folk songs.
Differences: While shaped around a common core, the Köroğlu Epic variants exhibit differences due to geographical and cultural influences. These differences appear not in language or style but in plot structure, motifs and narrative details:
The variants of the Köroğlu Epic in the Turkish world are like different branches of a single tree. They share the same roots but extend in different directions. Common motifs and themes reflect the shared tastes and values of Turkic peoples in every version, while local differences carry the color and scent of the soil from which each narrative grew. This rich variation demonstrates that the Köroğlu Epic has been reworked over generations by different ozans, with each narrator and community adding something of their own. The epic’s transformation into a polyphonic form is proof that it is truly the “common epic” of the Turkish world.
One of the most defining aspects of the Köroğlu Epic is its themes of heroism and justice. This epic narrates the rebellion of a hero emerging from a family wronged by injustice and has thus become a symbol of the oppressed people’s quest for justice. The character of Köroğlu reflects the idealized alp/eren type revered by the Turkish people for centuries. In the epic, Köroğlu is portrayed as the ally of the people whose rights and laws are trampled and the relentless enemy of oppressors. This characterization encapsulates the epic’s core message.
Köroğlu’s heroism does not remain confined to individual displays of bravery; it is fundamentally expressed as a struggle for social justice. The injustice symbolized by the blinding of his father (or grandfather) directs Köroğlu’s entire life. His decision to arm himself and retreat to the mountains is not motivated by personal gain or conquest but by the need to demand accountability for the injustice suffered and to avenge the oppressed classes who endure similar wrongs. In this sense, Köroğlu is an epic hero who unites the motif of revenge with the concept of justice. Indeed, the emotions expressed by the hero in the epic intertwine bravery, the desire for revenge, the urge to fight, longing for homeland and love.
Since Köroğlu is both a warrior armed with a sword and a âşık who speaks through the language of the heart, his speeches and actions reveal heroism and the quest for justice alongside love. For instance, while he wields his sword to end oppression, he also expresses in verse the values he fights for: the peace of the people, the safety of his loved ones and the honor of his homeland. In this way, the epic is not merely an action-filled adventure but also a poetic expression of a struggle for values.
One element that strengthens the theme of justice in the epic is Köroğlu’s stance in favor of the people and his spirit of sharing. In many variants, Köroğlu is portrayed as someone who takes from the rich and gives to the poor, sharing his spoils with his companions and impoverished villagers. In this sense, his heroism is not selfish but communal. The people see Köroğlu as a warrior of justice and love him for this reason. The oppressors or pashas, on the other hand, are doomed to defeat before an almost supernatural force (Köroğlu and his heroes). The narrative reinforces the belief that the oppressor will inevitably face punishment. This concept of justice is a concrete manifestation of the general characteristic of Turkish epics: the “good triumphs, evil is defeated” motif. However, in the Köroğlu Epic, the conflict between good and evil acquires a social dimension: the good is the rebel who seeks the people’s welfare; the evil is the oppressor who crushes the people.
What makes Köroğlu’s heroism even more distinctive is his fusion of heroism with his âşık character. He resists oppression not only through physical strength but also through the power of his words. His struggle has kept alive the belief that the righteous will ultimately prevail, becoming an inspiration and a call to action against injustice and a beacon of heroism and justice.
The Köroğlu Epic also possesses rich and intriguing features in terms of form and language. As a product of oral folk literature rather than classical written literature, improvisation and traditional modes of expression play an important role in its narration. One of its most distinctive literary aspects is the interweaving of poetry and prose. The narrator-ozan recounts the story’s plot in prose but sings poetic fragments (folk songs, koşmalar) during critical moments to intensify emotion or reflect the characters’ inner worlds. These metrical sections constitute the epic’s very backbone: the Köroğlu folk songs. Each folk song is a product that reflects the mood of the moment and the hero’s attitude.
The poetic dimension of the Köroğlu Epic also reveals its connection to the âşık literary tradition. Köroğlu stories have been narrated for centuries in âşık gatherings, coffeehouses and festivals by saz poets. These âşıks sometimes adopted the Köroğlu pseudonym, embracing it as a symbolic identity. Traditionally, it is accepted that “all folk songs sung under the pseudonym Köroğlu belong to the epic hero Köroğlu himself.”
That is, according to popular belief, all the poems in the Köroğlu Epic are spoken directly by Köroğlu himself. In reality, however, these poems are known to be the work of many different âşıks who lived in various periods. Indeed, many âşıks and âşık schools played a major role in the epic’s formation. This is part of the epic’s collective creative process. For example, there was an Âşık Köroğlu mentioned in the late 16th century; it remains uncertain whether this person was the actual hero of the epic or simply a folk poet who adopted the pseudonym under its influence. However, the style of the poems attributed to him aligns with the epic’s style, demonstrating that the epic was enriched by contributions from poets within its oral environment. When the epic’s language and style are examined, the features of epic narration are clearly evident. Exaggerated praises (exaggeration), descriptive epithets and repetitions are frequently used to elevate the hero.
When the narrator recounts the story in his own voice, he sometimes withdraws as an ozan and presents the events from the hero’s perspective. In descriptive passages, the epic’s prose language is enriched by local expressions; in poetic sections, specific rhyme and measure patterns (syllable meter and running form, typical of the epic genre) are employed. Most Köroğlu folk songs belong to the style of yiğitlik poetry known in folk literature as koçaklama: they contain a spirited tone, high self-confidence and a defiant attitude. For example, the following lines spoken by Köroğlu are typical of a koçaklama style:
“Let summer come, let the snow on the mountains melt,
Let my eyes behold my brother, the mountains!
The Misri sword dances in blood,
From you, the hard mountains fall!”
In these lines, Köroğlu’s courage and desire to fight are expressed through his dialogue with natural elements (mountains). The emphasis on his refusal to fear battle even as the Misri sword (a sword of fine steel) is stained with blood is a declaration of heroism. At the same time, a sense of epic shout (nara) is felt in this poem. Indeed, Köroğlu’s nârâ is also famous; according to tradition, when Köroğlu lets out his “deluğu” (shout), enemy troops scatter and castle gates tremble. This adds motif-rich depth to the epic from a literary perspective.
The poems of the Köroğlu Epic are not limited to koçaklamas. Köroğlu also uses poetry to express his inner world, longings and love. Lyric poems (âşıkane style) describing his longing for his beloved woman or homeland are also present in the epic. In this respect, Köroğlu’s poems can be as intimate and delicate as those of a folk ozan.
Another notable feature of the narrative style is the epic’s inclusion of formal (formulaic) expressions. As in all epics, the Köroğlu Epic contains repetitions and clichés that facilitate the narrator’s task and are familiar to the audience. For example, every time a new adventure begins, the scenes where Köroğlu gathers his heroes, mounts Kırat and declares “Come on, heroes!” are recounted with similar phrases. In encounter scenes, the hero’s challenge speeches or formulaic expressions of the prayer-applause type (aid from Hızır, arrival of the Forty, etc.) are scattered throughout the epic. All these features demonstrate that the Köroğlu Epic carries the aesthetic nuances of oral literature.
âşık tradition rituals are also reflected in the epic’s literary structure. Especially in Eastern variants, Köroğlu is described as a “bade âşık”: he gains poetic and wisdom power through a ritual (drinking the bade offered by spirits in his dream).
In some Azerbaijani variants, it is stated that Köroğlu gains strength and inspiration by drinking from the Göşebulak spring, thereby attaining the status of a hero and an âşık. In Anatolia, there is also the belief that Köroğlu acquired the power to play the saz and sing folk songs after receiving Hızır’s blessing or drinking from a pir’s hand. This motif is very common in Turkish folk tales (especially in âşık legends) and legitimizes Köroğlu’s literary identity. Thus, Köroğlu possesses the ability to sing poetry as a divine gift; therefore, his words are regarded by the people as embodying wisdom and sanctity.
The literary features of the Köroğlu Epic have made it both an epic narrative and a rich anthology of folk poetry. By combining verse and prose, and through the simplicity and vitality of its language, it has remained understandable and beloved for centuries. As a product of the ozan tradition, it offers a flexible narrative form that allows each performer to leave their mark. Thus, it has maintained its nature as a living epic, sustained over time by new poems and heroes in every era.
Beyond its narrative motifs, the Köroğlu Epic draws attention through the rich symbolic meanings assigned to these motifs. Particularly the elements of horse, woman and weapon function not merely as story components but as deep cultural symbols. Since Turkmen variants preserve the mythological background of these symbols most clearly, special emphasis on these variants is appropriate when evaluating the subject.
Horse (Kırat) Symbolism: In the Köroğlu Epic, the horse, especially Köroğlu’s horse Kırat, is an inseparable part of the hero and a symbol of his power. In Turkish culture, the horse has long been a symbol of heroism and freedom. As an indispensable element of steppe life, horses in epics are endowed with supernatural qualities and are regarded as the hero’s companion. Köroğlu’s Kırat is such a legendary horse. The narratives surrounding Kırat’s origin and lineage in Turkmen and Anatolian traditions reveal this horse’s symbolic value. According to popular belief, Kırat descends from a “sea horse”: the story goes that Köroğlu’s father’s (or grandfather’s) mare, grazing by the Euphrates River (or the Caspian Sea or Aras River), mated with a sea horse emerging from the waters, and Kırat was born from this union.
Because Kırat descends from legendary creatures living in the underworld, he possesses extraordinary strength and power. In one Anatolian tradition, this event is described as follows: Great Yusuf, grazing his herd by the sea shore, suddenly sees the sea rage, the waters rise, and a white horse’s head appears on the surface; the horse comes ashore and charges toward the brown mare. Yusuf watches this event joyfully and says, “Now we will have a horse from the sea horse.” The colt born from this union is Kırat, and Koca Yusuf nurtures him for three years without ever letting him touch the ground. This narrative shows how highly Kırat was valued from the beginning and how he was “treated as sacred”. Kırat’s descent from sea horses is clearly a mythological motif in the epic, meaning that Köroğlu’s horse is not an ordinary animal but originates from a life-giving element like water, from another world altogether.
In ancient Turkic belief, water is a symbol of abundance and life; a horse emerging from water is nature’s gift to the hero. This motif exists in other Turkic epics such as Alpamış and Manas in various forms: a horse emerging from a lake, a fairy horse, etc. Thus, Köroğlu’s Kırat is also a continuation of the Turkish epic tradition’s “Tulpar” (winged or legendary horse) motif. Kırat is Köroğlu’s greatest ally and closest friend. In various parts of the epic, Köroğlu converses with Kırat, confides in him and praises him. The poetic verses spoken by Kırat strengthen the epic’s symbolic language.
The horse here represents the hero’s bravery and freedom of movement. With Kırat, Köroğlu reaches his enemies, crosses mountains and travels from expedition to expedition. Without Kırat, he is nothing; without Köroğlu, Kırat is nothing. This symbolic relationship corresponds to the popular saying, “The horse is the hero’s wing.” Moreover, Kırat constantly reminds us of the mythological dimension of Köroğlu’s origin. In Western variants, the supernatural lineage may not be emphasized as strongly, but Kırat’s superiority (speed, strength, intelligence) is always evident. Ultimately, the horse symbol in the epic is a symbol of the hero’s power, freedom and harmony with nature. In the Turkmen variant, the sea horse motif elevates this symbolism to its peak and carries traces of traditional Turkic mythology.
Woman Symbolism: Female figures in the Köroğlu Epic also hold an important place and assume different symbolic roles. Generally, women in the epic appear in three main roles: wife/lover, wise elderly woman/helper and evil woman (traitor). These typologies are clearly identified in Anatolian narratives, but similar roles exist in other variants as well.
The first group consists of women married to or loved by Köroğlu and his close companions. These women serve the function of love, loyalty and inspiration in the epic. Köroğlu’s beloved woman (named Nigar Hanım in common traditions) is the figure who stands by him during his hardest times and gives him moral support. For example, in some narratives, when Köroğlu is besieged in a castle, his wife secretly brings him water and food, or when he is wounded, she treats him. In Azerbaijani variants, Nigar cleverly rescues her husband when he is captured: disguised as a woman, Köroğlu is not recognized, and Nigar helps him escape captivity. Such stories emphasize the helpful and intelligent role of the wife/lover figure. The theme of love balances the harsh heroism scenes in the epic. It shows that even a hero like Köroğlu has a heart and can love. His love poems support this aspect literarily. Here, the woman symbolizes home-building, continuation of the lineage and humanization. The hero is not merely a warrior but also a loving, marrying and family-building man. In Turkmen variants, Köroğlu’s marriage after gaining strength can be interpreted as a symbol of his maturity and completion of his social role. Marriage indicates that he has established a family and is not merely a bandit but a leader with a family life. The second female figure is the wise elderly woman type. Frequently appearing in epics, the old men/kamals (wise elders) sometimes appear as women in Köroğlu tales. Sometimes an old woman guides, advises or shelters Köroğlu. For example, an old woman hides Köroğlu on a mountain when he flees from Bolu Bey’s men, gives him food and advises him, “My son, be careful.” This female figure is an archetype of the mother and protector. She symbolizes the community’s wise memory, mother or grandmother. Usually unnamed, she is simply referred to as “the old woman.” Her role in the epic is to provide critical support to the hero and empower him through her prayers. This is known in Turkish epic tradition as the “helper character” and often takes a female form. These women serve as a kind of omen or guide for Köroğlu.
Third is the evil woman figure. In some epic episodes, female characters appear on the enemy’s side or betray Köroğlu. For example, in one tale, a bey’s daughter tries to deceive Köroğlu or disrupt his plans. Or a tyrannical lady sets a trap to capture Köroğlu. These women play roles in the epic’s moral contrasts. They are usually punished or their schemes fail. This “traitorous woman” motif reflects one aspect of the dual role assigned to women in the epic world: a woman is either the hero’s source of inspiration or a seductive figure leading to disaster. Although the second type is not dominant in the Köroğlu Epic, its presence is felt, indicating that the woman symbol in the epic is not one-dimensional.
When viewed specifically through the Turkmen variant, female figures generally appear in the context of Köroğlu’s family and marriage. As mentioned above, in the Turkmen narrative, Köroğlu marries, and this marriage signifies his period of maturity in the epic. In Turkmen culture, family and women hold a respected place, and this is reflected in the epic. Moreover, due to Islamic influences, Köroğlu’s approach to women in Turkmen variants is respectful and protective. In one tale, Köroğlu confronts a man who has fallen in love with the beautiful wife of a neighboring king (Ezim Köz Ayım) and stops him. Here, the woman appears as a war worth fighting for, yet Köroğlu prevents the unjust man from laying his eyes on her (i.e., the woman is not a commodity but a trust to be protected). These examples show that the woman symbol in the epic is sometimes associated with the concepts of honor and dignity.
In the Köroğlu Epic, the woman symbol represents love, loyalty and family life. She also serves as a carrier of certain moral lessons. Köroğlu’s beloved/wife figure adds depth to his heroism by revealing his human and emotional side. In narratives preserving older motifs, such as Turkmen variants, women generally appear in positive and supportive roles, suggesting that the epic generally adopts a “motherly virtue” approach toward women. To a considerable extent for an epic, the poems of the Köroğlu Epic contain praise of love and women, even expressing the value of women and âşıklık through the saying, “The hand of the âşık is the father.”
The woman symbol in the epic is an element that elevates love and gives the hero’s struggle a human purpose.
Weapon (Sword and Other War Instruments) Symbolism: As a heroic epic, the Köroğlu Epic gives significant space to weapons and war instruments in its narrative. However, weapons are not merely physical objects; they also acquire value as symbols of power, justice and sanctity. Köroğlu’s sword is the most striking element in this context. Some variants contain special stories about Köroğlu’s sword. For example, in Azerbaijan’s “Ali Kişi” episode, Ruşen Ali’s father, Ali Kişi, finds a meteorite falling from the sky. He asks a skilled blacksmith to forge a sword from it. The first smith makes a “we” (thin iron rod) from it and gives the remainder to the second smith, who forges a sword but keeps the leftover iron for himself and gives Ruşen a different sword. Ali Kişi tests the sword with the piece of meteorite in his pocket and breaks it, then forces the smith to hand over the real sword made from the meteorite. This sword is fastened to Ruşen’s belt, and his father says to him, “Now the time for revenge has come.”
This story shows that Köroğlu’s sword is not an ordinary weapon but a “blessing” from the sky. In ancient Turkic belief, a meteorite represents the power of the heavens, and a sword forged from it is an instrument of divine justice. Therefore, Köroğlu’s weapon is, in essence, a sacred sword of justice. In Turkmen variants, the sword-making process is not described in such detail, but the excellence of Köroğlu’s weapons is emphasized. In fact, as mentioned earlier, some sources state the motif of Köroğlu’s sword being made from a meteorite as a general expression. This indicates that similar beliefs exist across different branches of the epic. The sword is Köroğlu’s tool for achieving justice throughout the epic: he uses it against the one who blinded his father, against bandits who steal from the people and to restore the rights of the oppressed. In this sense, the sword is the symbolic extension of Köroğlu’s mission: a sword that dispenses justice. It is also a symbol of masculinity and heroism; in folk language, “to don the sword” means to mature and become a hero. When Ruşen Ali’s father gives him the sword, it means, “You have become a hero; your duty awaits you.”
In the Köroğlu Epic, the concept of weapon is not limited to the sword; horse, sword, bow and nara are all considered as a whole. The hero has three helpers: his horse, weapon and nara. The nara is also a metaphorical weapon; Köroğlu’s nara strikes fear into his enemies, providing psychological superiority through its demoralizing effect. This nara can be seen as a magical power in the epic; indeed, one researcher refers to Köroğlu’s magical nara and considers it a mythological auxiliary element.
The most concrete weapons, the sword and ok, adorn the action parts of the epic. Köroğlu and his heroes “ride horses, strike with swords, hurl spears and thrust lances” to demonstrate their heroism. However, each time it is emphasized that Köroğlu’s side wields the sword for a just cause, while the enemy relies on brute force. This situation raises the issue of the legitimacy of weapons: Köroğlu’s use of weapons is a legitimate rebellion against injustice, while the oppressors’ weapons are instruments of oppression. The epic clearly draws this distinction, conveying the message that the sword of justice will always prevail. When all these symbols are considered together, it becomes evident that the Köroğlu Epic carries multidimensional meanings on a symbolic level.
As a widely disseminated oral heritage within the Turkish world, the Köroğlu Epic has, over time, transcended the boundaries of the Turkish cultural sphere. The epic’s spread to Europe can be examined in two dimensions: first, the narration of its subject and stories among the peoples of the European continent; second, the discovery and documentation of the epic by European researchers and scholars.
Köroğlu narratives have spread from Anatolia and the Caucasus into the eastern and southern regions of Europe. During the Ottoman period and afterward, certain non-Turkic peoples living in close contact with Anatolian Turkmen tribes and Azerbaijani Turks adopted Köroğlu narratives into their own languages or at least became aware of these stories. It has been established that Köroğlu tales were particularly widespread among Georgians and Armenians. As reported by Karl Reichl, the Köroğlu epic circle spread from Northern Azerbaijan to other communities in the Caucasus (non-Turkic-speaking Georgians, Armenians, etc.).
This demonstrates that the epic circulated across ethnic boundaries without restriction. In Georgian folklore, although the name “Köroğlu” does not appear, a similar “son of the blind” story may exist in the Georgian narrative tradition; oral cultures commonly borrow from one another. Similarly, similar themes are found in Armenian folktales or aşuğ (âşık) stories. In addition, Köroğlu stories were narrated among the Crimean Tatars, reaching as far north as the Tobol (Siberian) Tatars and Karay/Karaim Turks.
The Karays are Jewish Turks living in Eastern Europe (Lithuania, Crimea, etc.); the inclusion of Köroğlu in their folklore is evidence of the epic’s penetration into the heart of Europe. Moreover, in the Balkan region, Köroğlu stories are also present among communities such as the Bulgarian Turks and Dobruja Tatars. In fact, it is claimed that among Bulgarians, particularly due to their long-standing interaction with Turks, a variant resembling a “Bulgarian Köroğlu” has emerged. All these indicate that the Köroğlu Epic has achieved a trans-Eurasian reach. The statement “The Köroğlu Epic has spread to almost all Turkic-speaking regions from Siberia to The Balkans” is accurate.
The second dimension of the Köroğlu Epic’s transmission to Europe is the awareness of the epic among the European public through written records and academic research. Especially from the 19th century onward, with the rise of Orientalist studies in Europe, Köroğlu attracted the attention of foreign traveler and researchers. One of the pioneering works in this regard was conducted by the Polish diplomat and folklorist Alexander Chodzko. Chodzko translated a Köroğlu narrative collected in Southern Caucasus into English and introduced it to the Western world.
The story titled “Kooroghli” in Chodzko’s 1842 publication, “Specimens of the Popular Poetry of Persia” (Acem Examples of Folk Poetry), was largely based on the Azerbaijani variant and portrayed Köroğlu as a Turkmen. This translation captured the attention of English-speaking intellectual circles and introduced the name Köroğlu into international literature. The Turkmen traces in Chodzko’s text (the emphasis on Köroğlu’s Turkmen identity) are also considered an important finding for comparing different versions of the epic.
One of the first comprehensive scholarly studies on the Köroğlu Epic was conducted by the Russian Turkologist V. V. Jirmunski (Yırmunski). In his comparative studies on Turkic folk epics during the Soviet period, Jirmunski devoted extensive attention to Köroğlu. In his classification and comparisons, he evaluated versions of the epic in different dialects together and attempted to map its spread. Jirmunski’s approach held that the Köroğlu Epic originated in Anatolia and then spread to Central Asia; however, subsequent researchers challenged this view, arguing instead that Central Asian motifs were carried into Anatolia. These debates themselves demonstrate the extent of interest Köroğlu generated in the international academic community. Among Western researchers, the name Karl Reichl is especially significant. In his comprehensive studies on Turkic epics in the late 20th century, Reichl examined Köroğlu as a case study and analyzed its dissemination dynamics. In his work “Turkic Epics: Traditions, Forms and Poetic Structure,” Reichl addressed the wide geographical spread of the Köroğlu epic circle and placed it within a theoretical framework. Reichl’s observation is that many scholars view the core of the Köroğlu Epic as rooted in the 16th-century Celali movements. However, he emphasizes that the epic later underwent a multifaceted spread and was adopted not only among Turkic peoples but also among neighboring communities. Reichl also notes the central role of the Turkmen version in the epic’s eastward spread.
The Turkmen variants played a mediating role in transmitting the epic to other Central Asian peoples. Within the Turkish world, scholarly studies on the Köroğlu Epic gained momentum with the Republic era. In Türkiye, Pertev Naili Boratav, from the 1930s onward, conducted in-depth research on archival documents and folk tales related to Köroğlu, shedding light on the epic’s historical and folkloric dimensions. Boratav discussed the idea that Köroğlu might have been a historical Celali and noted that he found references to Köroğlu in Ottoman archival lists of Celalis. However, Boratav ultimately conceded that Köroğlu could not be reduced to a single historical figure and recognized him as a type of epic hero.
Pertev Naili Boratav - Köroğlu Epic
In Azerbaijan, Soviet-era researchers such as M. H. Təhmasib and M. Hüseyn Tehmezov produced volumes of work on the “Koroğlu dastanı”, collecting and publishing its variants. In Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan and other countries, variants of the epic were compiled into books, especially during the mid-20th century when these stories were published in mass media. This activity can be regarded as the process of collecting the epic from oral tradition and transcribing and analyzing it. The international recognition of the Köroğlu Epic has been partly enhanced by artistic adaptations. In particular, the Azerbaijani composer Üzeyir Hacıbeyov’s opera “Koroğlu” (1937) created a significant impact, increasing the epic’s international visibility.
Overture from Üzeyir Hacıbeyli's Koroğlu Opera (Heydar Aliyev Foundation)
This opera, performed within the Soviet Union, was later staged in European countries, allowing the epic’s subject to live on in a different artistic form. Similarly, in Türkiye, films made in the 1960s such as the Köroğlu films (the 1968 film “Köroğlu” with a screenplay by Tuncel Kurtiz and starring Cüneyt Arkın) introduced the epic to mass audiences. Such cultural products can be considered part of the Köroğlu Epic’s entry into European and world culture.
Foreign researchers’ interest in the Köroğlu Epic continues today. Folklorists studying oral epic traditions regard Köroğlu as a valuable example due to its rich socio-cultural content and its living performance tradition. Additionally, from the perspective of comparative literature and cultural studies, the variations of Köroğlu in different languages and cultures provide rich material for tracing common motifs. When international organizations such as UNESCO consider nominations for their Intangible Cultural Heritage lists, the Köroğlu Epic occasionally comes to the fore. Because this epic is a shared cultural heritage of a cultural region, its international recognition and preservation are importance supply.
The spread of the Köroğlu Epic to Europe occurred in two dimensions: through the transcendence of folk narratives across boundaries and through gaining attention in academic and intellectual circles. Today, various publications on Köroğlu in different languages and dialects can be found in European libraries; thanks to translations into English, Russian, German and other languages, the epic reaches a wide audience. Through this, Köroğlu has transcended the status of a local legend to become a trans-Eurasian epic hero and a folkloric phenomenon.
The Köroğlu Epic continues to exert cultural influence in the Turkish world today. Although traditional oral narration environments and the epic-singing tradition have largely lost their former vitality, Köroğlu’s legacy persists in various forms. Across different regions of the Turkish world, the name and memory of Köroğlu remain a living and claimed value.
First, in many regions, Köroğlu is seen as part of local cultural identity. In Türkiye, particularly in Bolu and its surroundings, as well as in Tokat (Çamlıbel) and Bingöl, local communities claim Köroğlu lived on their lands and assert ownership of the epic. “No matter how much any city claims Köroğlu, many cities across the Turkish world claim him equally, because the Köroğlu Epic is the common epic of the Turkish nation,” this phenomenon has been noted.
Indeed, in Azerbaijan, regions such as Şemkir and Kazak also narrate legends that Köroğlu lived there; in Turkmenistan, Köroğlu mountains and legendary “Göroghly” tales are popular. This sense of ownership demonstrates that Köroğlu has established himself as a cultural symbol in the hearts of different communities. Saim Sakaoğlu’s observation supports this: “Köroğlu has transcended being a person and, as a symbol, has taken the throne in the heart of the Anatolian people. Many things have been written and said about him. His memory still lives in Bolu, Tokat Çamlıbel, and Bingöl.”
This quote emphasizes that Köroğlu lives not only in narratives but also in place names, folk memory and cultural discourse. Today, Köroğlu’s name appears in many works, poems and songs in Türkiye; in Azerbaijan, he is remembered as a symbol of heroism; in Turkmenistan, he is respected among national hero figures. When examining the current state of the Köroğlu Epic’s narrative tradition, a dual situation emerges. On one hand, the number of traditional epic narrators has dwindled to a handful. As a result of technological and social changes, epics have ceased to be part of everyday conversations and village gatherings. In eras before print, publishing and visual media, folk âşıks played a crucial role in carrying voices and words to distant places; they shared the emotions of society through music and words. However, in today’s world, this function has largely shifted to media media. Nevertheless, in countries like Türkiye and Azerbaijan, a few master âşıks still preserve Köroğlu stories in their repertoire. For example, it is recorded that in Azerbaijan, âşıks who knew parts of Köroğlu’s episodes existed until the end of the 20th century; in Türkiye, especially in regions where the âşık tradition persists, such as Kars and Erzurum, partial Köroğlu stories are still narrated. However, overall, the oral epic tradition has largely dissolved in our time and is now only performed symbolically at festivals and special events. Today’s youth encounter epics by reading books or through digital media or by watching film/TV adaptations. The Köroğlu Epic cannot be separated from this transformation. There are no longer audiences who listen for hours to Köroğlu’s stories from the lips of an âşık; however, his story continues to live in written and visual media in different forms.
On the other hand, there are areas where the epic’s influence persists. Music leads this list. Many folk melodies and makam derived from the Köroğlu Epic are still performed today. In Anatolia, instrumental melodies known as “Köroğlu havaları” exist in the repertoires. Even if the origin of these melodies is forgotten, they continue to live in people’s ears. Similarly, in Azerbaijani mugham and folk music, there is a melody known as “Koroğlu cengi,” derived from the epic. This musical heritage is a sign that Köroğlu’s influence endures through art.
Moreover, in literature, the Köroğlu theme appears in contemporary works. Modern Turkish literature includes poems referencing Köroğlu and novels featuring him as a character. In children’s literature, Köroğlu comic books and storybooks have been published, ensuring that new generations become familiar with him. In the curricula of Turkish world countries, excerpts from the Köroğlu Epic or information about it are included. Thus, even though its form has changed, the epic’s content and message continue to be transmitted.
Today, various cities host Köroğlu events. In Türkiye, cultural events called the “Köroğlu Festival” are held in Bolu province, where traditional elements such as horse races and âşık contests are used to keep Köroğlu’s legacy alive. Similarly, in Azerbaijan, exhibitions and opera performances on Köroğlu themes are organized. In Turkmenistan, the “Göroghly” epic is recognized as one of the foundational pillars of national culture, and the state undertakes efforts to promote this heritage. In fact, in 2015, Azerbaijan, Türkiye, Kazakhstan and other countries jointly initiated efforts to include the “Köroğlu Epic” in UNESCO’s Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage. These efforts demonstrate that the Köroğlu Epic remains significant for contemporary cultural identity.
The figure of Köroğlu finds a place in public discourse as an idealized hero. Politicians may quote him in speeches, and his name may be invoked in popular movements. Especially those wishing to emphasize justice often cite Köroğlu. The phrase “To rise up against injustice like Köroğlu” has become an expression encouraging resistance against injustice. This is evidence that the epic’s value system remains alive: Köroğlu continues to be remembered as an epic warrior of justice.
Although the narrative tradition of the Köroğlu Epic no longer exists in its classical form, its content and influence continue to live on. Today, while “epic culture” is not as it once was, cultural values persist and are revitalized through modern elements.
The Köroğlu Epic, though rooted in the turbulent social environment of the 16th century, has transcended boundaries and eras to become the shared value of the entire Turkish world — a true epic. Its historical development has been interwoven with mythological elements; it has taken on various forms across a geographical expanse stretching from Anatolia to Central Asia. Through its rich structure of oral literature, enriched by the contributions of narrators and listeners, the epic has survived for centuries.
The importance of the Köroğlu Epic lies not merely in being a sequence of stories but in the universal themes and cultural values it contains. The central themes of justice, freedom, heroism, loyalty and love reflect the shared worldview of the Turkish people. Köroğlu’s rebellion against oppression and his stance on the side of the oppressed have made him a hero in the hearts of the people. The values embodied in his character have served as guiding ideals for generations. Thus, Köroğlu holds the status of a symbol in the collective memory of the Turkish people.
Literarily, the Köroğlu Epic is the last great link in the Turkish epic tradition. The spirited and emotive tone of the Köroğlu folk songs sung with the saz has transformed this epic into not just a folk tale but also a folk poetry anthology. As a product of the ozan tradition, the epic has become a subject of academic study due to its formal and stylistic features; the formulas, motifs and linguistic richness found in the epic have attracted the interest of folklore studies.
The cultural and literary importance of the Köroğlu Epic in the Turkish world is still felt today in various manifestations. Its designation as our common epic, and its adoption by different countries, demonstrates its unifying and sharing power. This epic, which once served as a cultural identity bridge among Turkic tribes, continues to play a role in fostering a shared historical-cultural heritage consciousness among modern Turkish states and communities.
Although the weakening of the oral narration tradition has reduced direct transmission, the Köroğlu Epic continues to survive by adapting to changing conditions. Through written texts, stage arts, music and popular culture, new generations are becoming acquainted with Köroğlu. His name is mentioned in schoolbooks and literature classes; his melodies echo in concerts; his character is reanimated in films. Thus, the epic continues to carry its core messages into new eras.
Academic studies on the Köroğlu Epic have demonstrated that it is not only important for Turkish culture but also a significant example for the world’s epic tradition. Köroğlu’s spread across different languages and cultures has made this epic a trans-Eurasian epic. Therefore, in international folklore literature, Köroğlu is studied and used as a case study in comparative epic research. The cultural and literary importance of the Köroğlu Epic in the Turkish world is vast and multidimensional.
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Origins and Historical Development
Place and Structure within the Turkish Epic Tradition
Köroğlu Variants in the Turkish World: Similarities and Differences
Themes of Heroism and Justice in the Epic
Literary Features of the Köroğlu Epic
The Role of Symbols: Horse, Woman, Weapon
Köroğlu’s Spread to Europe and Its Place in Foreign Research
Köroğlu’s Influence in the Turkish World Today