Scythians (Sakas)

The Scythians (Sakas) were a warrior people who became dominant across the Eurasian steppes beginning in the 8th century BCE and were known for their nomadic lifestyle. Originating in Central Asia, the Scythians exerted influence over a vast territory stretching from the Chinese borders in the east to the Danube River in the west, from Siberia in the north to Iran and Mesopotamia in the south. Their military power, based on mounted cavalry, their animal-style art, and their rich burial cultures left a lasting mark on history. In ancient sources, the Scythians were referred to by different names: by the Greeks as “Skuthai,” by the Persians as “Saka,” and in Indian texts as “Chaka.” The term “Scythian” was originally used to describe the branch of the Sakas that migrated north of the Black Sea; this people established a steppe empire that interacted with both eastern and western civilizations, leaving political, cultural, and military legacies.

The Origins of the Scythians

The Scythians (Greek: Skuthoi) were a nomadic people who were active across the Eurasian steppes in antiquity. Known as “Saka” in Persian sources and “Chaka” in Indian texts, they are generally treated in historical scholarship as synonymous with the Sakas. In this context, the Scythians are regarded as the western branch of the Sakas. Various historical and ethnological theories have been proposed regarding the origins of the Scythians.

According to the dominant academic view, the Scythians were an Indo-European-speaking people, likely of Iranian origin. One key piece of evidence supporting this view is the name “Massagetae,” which in Old Persian means “great” or “mighty.” Archaeological findings and linguistic analyses reinforce this interpretation. However, alternative ethnic and cultural perspectives also exist. Some Turkish historians, by examining the geography inhabited by the Scythians, their migration routes, traditional lifestyles, cultural artifacts, and belief systems, have classified them as a people belonging to the Ural-Altaic race with proto-Turkic characteristics.

Some Objects Attributed to the Scythians (Cleveland Art)

Both approaches agree that the Scythians were a steppe society originating in Central Asia. While it remains difficult to establish a definitive ethnic classification for their origins, it is widely accepted that they were a nomadic warrior community rooted in Central Asian traditions.

Archaeological and historical data indicate that the Scythians emerged on the northern Eurasian steppes toward the end of the 2nd millennium BCE. The renowned Russian archaeologist Mikhail Artamonov traces the origins of Scythian culture to the Srubna (Timber-Grave or Log-Grave) culture communities of Central Asia. These groups later displaced the Cimmerians, who belonged to the Catacomb culture and inhabited the northern Black Sea region. This historical process demonstrates that the Scythians migrated from east to west—from Central Asia to the northern steppes of the Black Sea.

Historical records state that by the 8th century BCE, the Scythians had reached the northern steppes of the Black Sea and defeated the Cimmerians. Some Cimmerians, under Scythian pressure, migrated to the Caucasus and subsequently into Anatolia. This event was a significant development shaping both the expansion of the Scythians and the broader patterns of migration in the period.

The region traditionally regarded as the Scythian homeland is the Altai Mountains and their surroundings, located at the intersection of present-day Kazakhstan, Mongolia, China, and Russia. Scythian communities living in these mountainous regions of Central Asia moved westward due to climatic changes and population movements beginning in the 9th and 8th centuries BCE. During this first major wave of migration, Scythian groups originating from central Turkistan reached the steppes of southern Russia and Ukraine.

Persian sources referred to this western-moving group as “Saka tigrakhauda” (Sakas with pointed hats) or “Saka paradraya” (Sakas beyond the sea), while Greek historians recorded the people settled between the Danube and Don rivers as “Scythians.” By the 8th century BCE, the Scythians had settled in the northern steppes of the Black Sea and, over time, launched raids from this base, extending their reach through the Caucasus into Mesopotamia.

Mythological narratives also exist regarding the origins of the Scythians. According to Herodotus, the Scythians appeared at a time when golden objects fell from the sky. In this legend, Targitaos, a divine ancestor, had three sons; the youngest, who claimed the golden artifacts, founded the royal line. The identification of Targitaos with the semi-divine hero Heracles suggests that Scythian kings were believed to possess a sacred lineage.

Setting aside these mythological accounts, historical and cultural evidence links the origins of the Scythians to the steppe cultures of Central Asia. By the 7th century BCE, the Scythians had established dominance over the northern Black Sea region and expanded their campaigns as far as Mesopotamia, enhancing their historical influence. Although various ethnic interpretations of Scythian origins exist, there is scholarly consensus that they were a steppe people originating in Central Asia.

The Geography of the Scythians

Scythian dominance extended across a vast territory throughout antiquity. Over their approximately thousand-year historical presence (from the 8th century BCE to the 2nd century CE), the Scythians exerted influence from the Chinese Wall in the east to the Danube River in the west, from the taigas of Siberia in the north to the borders of Anatolia and Egypt in the south. Ancient writers referred to this immense region as “Scythia.”

The most detailed information about Scythian settlement areas is found in Herodotus’s work Historia. According to Herodotus, Scythia encompassed the steppe belt north of the Black Sea, stretching from the Danube (Istros) River in the west to the Don (Tanais) River in the east. The southern boundary was defined by the coasts of the Black Sea and the Sea of Azov, as well as the Crimean Peninsula (ancient Taurica). To the east, the Don River and a long ditch attributed to the Scythians served as a frontier between them and other eastern nomadic peoples. To the north, forested regions began, and Herodotus noted the presence of non-Scythian tribes such as the Androphagi. The area north of the Dnieper River was described as a “desolate wilderness.”

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Herodotus also classified the tribal distribution within Scythian territory. In the west, semi-sedentary Scythian agricultural communities lived on fertile lands. Between the Danube and Hypanis (Bug) rivers resided the Callipidae, a mixed Greek-Scythian group. To their east were the Halizones and the Argippaei, a tribe engaged in agriculture in the lower Dnieper basin. Nomadic Scythian groups inhabited the region up to the Donets River. Herodotus identified the Royal Scythians (Skithai Basilioi) as the most powerful tribe, settled at the center of this territory and politically governing other Scythian clans. This group represented the leadership of the Scythian world in terms of centralized administration and military strength.

The influence of the Scythians was not limited solely to the northern shores of the Black Sea. Persian inscriptions and Eastern traditions also refer to related steppe peoples of Central Asia under the name “Saka.” King Darius of Persia’s Behistun Inscriptions classify Saka communities into three main groups: Saka Paradraya (Saka beyond the Sea), corresponding to the group on the Black Sea steppes whom the Greeks called Scythians; and Saka Haumavarga (Saka who drink haoma) and Saka Tigrakhauda (Saka with pointed hats), which refer to communities residing deeper within Central Asia. These records demonstrate that the presence of the Scythians/Saka extended from east of the Caspian Sea to the Aral Sea and the Tian Shan mountains, and even into the Hindukush region.

Until the 2nd century BCE, the Saka Haumavarga and Saka Tigrakhauda communities, active primarily in Central Asia—especially in Turkistan and its surroundings—later migrated southward and settled in what is now northern Afghanistan and Iran. These tribes were forced to migrate under pressure from the Yuezhi and Hun invasions and eventually disappeared from the historical stage.

Therefore, the Scythian sphere of dominance was not confined merely to the steppes of Eastern Europe. The various names recorded in Chinese, Indian, Iranian, Assyrian, Urartian, Greek, and Roman sources reveal that the Scythians interacted with a wide array of cultures and existed across a vast geographical expanse. Although these cultures referred to the Scythians by different names, the Persian term “Saka” and the Greek term “Skuthoi” both describe essentially the same large group of nomadic peoples.

The Scythians, as one of the principal representatives of the equestrian nomadic lifestyle across this vast Eurasian expanse, engaged with settled civilizations while also shaping history through large-scale migrations and campaigns. Their nomadic warfare, economy based on animal husbandry, and portable cultural elements enabled them to adapt easily to diverse geographical environments. Hence, when referring to the “Scythian geography,” one must understand not only the northern Black Sea region but the entire Eurasian steppe belt stretching from the Danube to China.

Social Structure

Scythian society exhibited a typical steppe nomadic structure. This social organization was traditional, warrior-oriented, and hierarchical, grounded in a nomadic pastoral economy. The Scythians’ primary livelihood was animal husbandry, particularly the raising of large herds of horses, cattle, and sheep. Pig farming was uncommon among the Scythians. This economic model also shaped their dietary habits: meat and dairy products formed the foundation of the Scythian diet; they consumed cooked meat, drank mare’s milk, and ate cheese made from it.

The nomadic lifestyle also influenced their housing and clothing. The Scythians most likely lived in felt tents or wheeled tent-carts, moving seasonally to graze their herds. This way of life fostered a disciplined and tradition-bound culture within the society. Ancient writers such as Herodotus and Hippocrates emphasized the conservative nature of Scythian life. The Scythians maintained distance from foreign cultures, showed deep loyalty to their own customs, and avoided adopting the practices of other peoples.

In Scythian society, individuals’ social roles were defined by martial qualities regardless of gender. Young people were encouraged to become warriors, and the importance of courage and heroism was instilled from an early age. Women were also integral to this warrior identity. Ancient sources indicate that Scythian women rode horses and used bows and spears. The tradition that a young woman had to kill three enemies before she could marry further demonstrates that women held the same warrior roles as men. This practice inspired the Amazon mythology and established the Scythians as one of the societies renowned for female warriors. This traditional structure left traces in later Turkic-Mongol steppe societies.

Society was primarily divided into tribes and clans. Each tribe had its own leader (bey), yet a royal family represented a central authority over all tribes. The social structure was hierarchical, and class distinctions are clearly observable in archaeological findings. Particularly, Scythian kurgans (elaborate burial mounds) reveal the material and social disparities between nobility and commoners. Large kurgans were equipped with stone or wooden chambers and contained numerous valuable objects, weapons, ornaments, and even sacrificed animals and servants, reflecting burial customs. In contrast, the graves of ordinary people were smaller, simpler, and contained fewer goods.

A Scythian Kurgan Remnant (Archaeology Art)

This indicates that property, wealth, and prestige in Scythian society were concentrated among specific families and social strata. However, this class structure was not absolute. An individual’s position in society was shaped not only by birth but also by acts of bravery, courage, and standing within the tribe. Thus, achieving high status was possible not only through wealth but also through military achievements.

The Scythian aristocracy consisted of the royal family, tribal beys, and their elite warriors. The royal guard units surrounding the kings were regarded as symbols of social prestige. Membership in these units represented both high honor and an opportunity for social advancement.

The institution of slavery did not develop in the classical sense among the Scythians. Herodotus writes that the Scythian king viewed other Scythians as his “slaves”; however, the term “slave” here likely does not refer to individual bondage in the modern sense but rather to politically subjugated dependent communities. No direct archaeological or textual evidence supports large-scale slave labor among the Scythians.

The majority of society consisted of pastoral warriors. These people raised livestock as sustainers of a nomadic economy, occasionally participated in warfare, and fulfilled tribute or military obligations under the authority of tribal leaders.

Political Structure

The Scythian political structure was a hybrid model combining a federative confederation of tribes with a hereditary monarchy. This system reflected the dispersed nature of nomadic societies while establishing a centralizing core that enabled unity under a central authority. At the heart of the Scythian kingdom stood a king (han) who ruled over all tribes and clans. This king was typically drawn from a royal lineage known as the “Royal Scythians” (Skithai Basilioi), traced back to the ancestral figure Targitaos. According to Herodotus, Scythian kings were selected from among members of this single dynasty and ruled for many generations.

Although power was regarded as a hereditary right passed from father to son, this succession was not rigidly applied in favor of the eldest son. Authority and suitability criteria could determine power-sharing among male members of the royal house. For instance, as recorded by Herodotus, King Scyles was deposed due to his drinking habits and replaced by his brother Octamasades. Such examples illustrate that internal dynastic dynamics and aristocratic approval played decisive roles in the political process. The selection of a new king sometimes required the consent of tribal chiefs or prominent figures, indicating that elements of collective decision-making were integrated into the process.

Regardless of the method by which a king ascended the throne, his authority was never questioned. The Scythian king was an absolute ruler, holding all military, political, and religious powers in his person. This conferred upon him a quasi-divine status, leading to his perception within society as a sacred figure. Every Scythian was obligated to obey the king’s commands unconditionally. This conception may have been shaped through contact with neighboring absolute monarchies in the East.

The burial rituals following the king’s death served as significant indicators of his sacred status. Herodotus recounts that upon the death of a Scythian king, his servants, concubines, and even his horses were sacrificed and buried with him in the kurgan tomb. Archaeological findings of such mass burials confirm that this practice was rooted in the belief that the king would maintain his earthly status in the afterlife.

The central structure of the state was dominated by the aristocratic class known as the “Royal Scythians,” centered in the steppes north of the Black Sea. From the 5th century BCE onward, this group subjugated other Scythian tribes politically and began viewing them as a kind of “subject people” or “slaves.” Here, the term “slave” does not refer to individual servitude but to political subordination and allegiance.

The Royal Scythians established dominance over other tribes not only through military power but also through charismatic authority and genealogical legitimacy. Some sources suggest the presence of a council of nobles or tribal chieftains surrounding the king. It is clear that these elites held influence, particularly during critical moments such as the selection of a new king. However, the final authority and the power to determine the fate of the state remained exclusively with the king. Decisions regarding war, peace, migration, and other major matters were made directly by the king himself.

Among the Scythian kings mentioned in ancient sources are Spargapithes, Idanthyrsos, Scyles, and Octamasades. Although belonging to the same dynasty, these rulers experienced internal conflicts. Herodotus recounts that the Scythians’ legendary ancestor Targitaos had three sons, and that the monarchy was established through the lineage of the youngest, Kolaksais. This narrative served to legitimize the divine origin of the royal house, identifying it with the Greek mythological figure Heracles.

Unlike settled states, the Scythian state did not develop around a permanent capital. The kingdom was administered through a nomadic army-camp system. The king and ruling class moved with the entire population across the landscape, establishing temporary centers in different regions. Despite this flexible structure, political unity was largely preserved, and all tribes could unite around the king during external threats or major campaigns.

Some historians have described this political structure as a “military democracy.” While hereditary monarchy and aristocracy persisted, mass decision-making mechanisms involving free Scythian men could emerge during wartime. Herodotus’s observation that the Scythians were easily targeted when dispersed but became invincible when united reflects the importance of this military-political cohesion.

During the 7th and 6th centuries BCE, the Scythian state initiated a period known as the “Pax Scythica,” establishing nearly three centuries of stability across vast Eurasian territories. During this era, kings both waged war and engaged in diplomatic relations and trade with neighboring settled civilizations—such as the Persians, Assyrians, and Medes—accumulating wealth through gold, precious metals, and trade goods. This material wealth concentrated in the hands of the nobility and strengthened royal authority.

Some researchers refer to this period as the “Great Saka (Scythian) State,” asserting that the Scythian king ruled over an influence zone extending from Eastern Europe to Central Asia. Legendary figures such as Alp Er Tunga are regarded as symbolic leaders representing the golden age of this kingdom.

Alp Er Tunga

Alp Er Tunga is a legendary Scythian (Saka) ruler mentioned in both Turkic and Iranian sources. In the Turkic epic tradition, Alp Er Tunga is revered as one of the oldest and most noble heroes. In Iran’s national epic, the Shahnameh, he is known as “Efrasiyab” (Afrasiab); both names refer to the same historical-mythological figure. According to tradition, Alp Er Tunga brought the Saka Empire to its most brilliant era, uniting his people through his powerful charisma, martial prowess, and leadership. During his reign, the Saka reached their greatest territorial extent, achieved major conquests, and established military and political dominance across the Eurasian steppes. Alp Er Tunga is described as a wise, valiant, discerning, and just ruler. In the lament “Alp Er Tunga Sagusu,” recorded by Kaşgarlı Mahmud in his Divânu Lügati’t-Türk, the chaos, collapse of order, and public mourning following his death are poetically conveyed: “If Alp Er Tunga has died, has the lonely steppe remained?” These lines symbolize the social equilibrium shattered by his loss.

Although its historical identity cannot be definitively established, some researchers identify Alp Er Tunga with a Saka king who lived in the 7th century BCE. According to certain traditions, he was killed in a trap set by King Keyaksar of Media (Keyhüsrev of the Iranian epic), near Lake Urmia; this event marked the end of Saka dominance in Anatolia and Mesopotamia. These narratives indicate that with Alp Er Tunga’s death, Saka power retreated eastward and began to fragment. In Turkish history, Alp Er Tunga is regarded as a “great ancestor” and has been viewed as the source of legitimacy for many Turkish dynasties. Dynasties such as the Karakhanids and Seljuks traced their lineage back to him, transforming his legendary status into a political symbol. Alp Er Tunga has even been equated with Oghuz Khan, thereby becoming a mythological ruler, a cultural symbol, and an eternal representative of the Scythian heritage in the shared memory of both Turkic and Iranian epics.

The Lament for Alp Er Tunga

The death of Alp Er Tunga left a profound impact on the Scythian people and found expression in their oral literature.

The lament for Alp Er Tunga recorded in Divanü Lugati’t-Türk is one of the oldest known examples of early Turkish literature:

Alp Er Tunga öldi mü

Issız ajun kaldı mu

Ödlek öcün aldı mu

Emdi yürek yırtılur!

These lines reveal that Alp Er Tunga was seen as a source of order and security for his society, and that his absence represented not merely a personal loss but a profound social collapse. The lament clearly reflects how the death of a leader in early Turkish society generated deep mourning and how the concept of resilience in the face of loss became embedded in oral culture.

Tomris Hatun

Tomris Hatun is the most famous female ruler of the Scythian-Saka world, renowned in legend for her extraordinary courage and determination. As queen of the Massagetae, who lived in Central Asia in the 6th century BCE, Tomris is known for her resistance against the Persian Empire, one of the most powerful empires of the era. According to Herodotus, the Persian King Cyrus II lured and killed Tomris’s son through deceit during a campaign against the Massagetae. In response, Tomris assembled her army and launched a decisive war against the Persians. In the battle near the Amu Darya in 530 BCE, the Persian army suffered a crushing defeat and Cyrus II lost his life. Herodotus recounts that Tomris plunged Cyrus’s severed head into a vessel filled with blood and declared, “You thirsted for blood; here, drink your fill!” While this dramatic account symbolizes her vengeance, alternative historical accounts exist. Persian sources state that Cyrus’s body was recovered by the Persians and buried at Pasargadae. What is certain is that the Persians suffered heavy losses in this campaign and that Tomris successfully defended the Massagetae.

Tomris Hatun appears in ancient sources not only as a warrior leader but also as a symbol of political will and independence. Ancient writers such as Diodorus Siculus, Pompeius Trogus, and Justinus spoke of her with admiration, emphasizing that despite being a woman, she defeated a great emperor. Diodorus notes that women descended from Tomris also ascended the throne at times, demonstrating that women in the Saka world could hold political power. Tomris’s victory over the Persians preserved the independence of the Saka in Central Asia and halted the Persian Empire’s eastward expansion. In her person, qualities traditionally associated with men—warrior spirit and leadership—were embodied by a female ruler. Her story has become synonymous with national heroism in Turkish and Kazakh traditions and is regarded in modern historiography as one of the most important examples of women assuming political and military roles in early antiquity. Tomris Hatun continues to live in both ancient and contemporary memory as the “invincible queen,” a historical figure who demonstrates that Scythian women were not only warriors but also capable state administrators.

Military Power of the Scythians

The Scythians were among the most effective and feared warrior peoples of antiquity. Their military strength enabled them to preserve their independence and confront major empires. The core of the Scythian army consisted of mounted archers. Highly skilled in shooting from horseback, the Scythians employed light armor and fast cavalry units to wear down enemies through constant mobility. Their most important weapon was the short but powerful composite bow, which allowed arrows to be fired in all directions from horseback. Other weapons included the akinakes (short sword), spear, and the battle axe (sagaris). Scythian cavalry became masters of hit-and-run tactics. Thanks to the endurance of their horses and the precision of their archers, they held a significant advantage over heavy infantry forces. Ancient authors praised these traits; Herodotus stated, “If they united under a single leader, they would become the most invincible nation on earth.” Their military prowess was reinforced by their warrior social structure: in peacetime, every man was a herder and hunter; in wartime, he became a trained soldier. It is also known that women participated in warfare under certain conditions, demonstrating that Scythian military power was mobilized as a unified social whole.

Scythian armies participated in numerous major battles and campaigns throughout history. In the 7th century BCE, they descended into Western Asia via the Caucasus and established relations with the Assyrian, Median, and Babylonian states. Although the Scythian king Ishpaka’s campaign to aid Mannaea failed, the Scythians soon formed an alliance with the Medes and played a role in the fall of Nineveh in 612 BCE. Later, they joined the Babylonian king Nebuchadnezzar in the Battle of Carchemish against the Egyptians. The victory in this battle led to Egypt’s withdrawal from Asia. The Scythians dominated Median territories for approximately 28 years, exerting influence over a vast area of Southwest Asia. In 513 BCE, the Persian king Darius’s campaign against the Scythians once again revealed their military genius. Through the “war of attrition” strategy employed by the Scythian king Idanthyrsus, Darius’s army was exhausted in the steppe and forced to retreat without engaging in a pitched battle. This campaign became a classic example of the strategy of withdrawing to wear down the enemy, later adopted in similar forms by the Huns, Kipchaks, and Mongols.

The Scythians’ military superiority was not only tactical but also psychological. Bone masks worn by warriors and their horses, animal-patterned armor, and gold ornaments created an intimidating impression on enemies. Ancient sources report that the Scythians poisoned their arrowheads and made drinking cups from the skulls of fallen enemies. Although these accounts may be exaggerated, they reflect the ferocity of Scythian warrior culture. Armies were organized along tribal lines, with each clan contributing its own cavalry; during wartime, these tribal units united under the king’s command to form a centralized army. Additionally, the Scythians served as mercenaries, for example, in the armies of Assyria and Egypt. In the 4th century BCE, the Scythian king Ateas died at age 90 while fighting against Philip II of Macedon in the Balkans; this defeat marked the collapse of Scythian power in Europe. Nevertheless, their military traditions continued to inspire steppe peoples who followed them, such as the Huns, Göktürks, and Mongols.

Culture, Language, and Art

Golden-clad Man (AA)

The Scythians deeply reflected their connection to nature in their culture and art. Their nomadic lifestyle encouraged the production of durable and functional artifacts. Burial mounds known as kurgans provide valuable insights into Scythian death rituals and social structure. The young warrior discovered in 1969 in the Esik Kurgan in Kazakhstan, known as the “Golden-clad Man,” is one of the most important examples of Scythian art and craftsmanship. His garment, covered in gold plaques, demonstrates the high level of metallurgy and metalworking achieved by the Scythians. The depictions of eagles, leopards, and horses on his clothing reflect reverence for nature and sacred forces. Animal style dominates Scythian art, with animal figures rendered in stylized forms symbolizing power, agility, and the spirit of nature. This artistic approach was not merely an aesthetic preference but also a reflection of Scythian religious and mythological worldview. Although direct written documents in the Scythian language are limited, geographical names and personal names recorded in ancient sources suggest a connection between the Scythian language and early Turkic languages.